CONSTRUCTIVE

ALIGNMENT
GGGE6563: STRATEGI PENGAJARAN
DR KHAIRUL JAMALUDIN
'If students are to learn desired outcomes in a
reasonably effective manner, then the teacher's
fundamental task is to get students to engage in
learning activities that are likely to result in their
achieving those outcomes... It is helpful to
remember that what the student does is actually
more important in determining what is learned than
what the teacher does.’
(Shuell, 1986: 429)
What is Constructive Alignment?

■ is a teaching principle that combines constructivism, the idea that learners construct or
create meaning out of learning activities and what they learn, and alignment, a
curriculum design concept that emphasizes the importance of defining and achieving
intended learning outcomes.
■ The goal is to support students in developing as much meaning and learning as possible
from a well designed, coherent, and aligned course.
■ Courses are congruent and cohere in an explicit way when there is good fit and flow
between a course’s intended learning outcomes, teaching and learning activities, and
assessments of student learning.
 John Biggs (2014):

■ Thoughtfully determining intentions for what students

should learn and how they will demonstrate their
achievement of these intended learning outcomes, and
clearly communicating these to students;
■ Designing teaching and learning activities so that
students are optimally engaged in achieving these
learning outcomes; and
■ Creating assessments that will allow students to
demonstrate their attainment of the learning outcomes
and allow instructors to discern how well these outcomes
have been achieved.

https://flexforward.pressbooks.com/chapter/constructive-alignment/
#:~:text=Constructive%20Alignment%20is%20a%20teaching,and
%20achieving%20intended%20learning%20outcomes.
 Matching individual performances
against the criteria is not a matter
of counting marks but of making
holistic judgments.
make sure the
assessment tasks
mirror the ILOs.
Arriving at a
final grade.
Assessing
students' actual
learning outcomes
to see how well
Choosing they match what
teaching/learning was intended
activities likely to
make clear what levels of lead to the ILOs

understanding we want from Defining the

intended
our students in what topics, learning
outcomes
and what performances of (ILOs)
understanding would give us
this knowledge.
Your turn:

■ Pick one subject that you teach

■ Identify the aim and objective of the lesson
Content/Topic ILO
https://www.bcit.ca/files/ltc/pdf/ja_learningoutcomes.pdf
Four common teaching situations and
associated TnL activities
SITUATION TEACHING ACTIVITIES
LECTURE Talk, explain, clarify
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Listen, take notes, query, discuss with
peers, one minute paper

TUTORIAL Set answer questions Pre-read, prepare questions, learn

Provide feedback from peers, critique
PROJECT Set brief Apply, create, self-monitor,
Provide ongoing feedback communicate, teamwork

PBL Set problems Set learning goal, design, apply,

Provide feedback access desired content and skills,
integrate, solve problems
Typical ILOs and possible TLAs

Typical ILO Possible TLAs

Describe Set reading, lecture, report on field trip, write essay

Explain Tutorials, activities, write essay

Integrate Project, assignment
Apply Project, case study
Solve problem PBL, case study
Design, create Project, poster
Hypothesise Experiment, project
Reflect Reflective diary
 The cone of
learning
■ Proposed by Edgar Dale
■ Some guiding questions:
– Where will the student’s
experience with this
instructional resource fit
on the cone?
– What kind of learning
experience do you want to
provide in the classroom?
– How does this instructional
resource augment the
information supplied by the
textbook?
– What and how many senses
can students use to learn
this instructional material?
– Does the instructional
material enhance
learning?
https://www.queensu.ca/teachingandlearning/modules/active/documents/Dales_Cone_of_Experience_summary.pdf
Designing Assessment Tasks

■ AT should reflect the ILOs

■ Is used to help measure how far the ILOs have been achieved
■ Reflect the verbs used in the ILOs
■ Always ask yourself:
– Does the AT reflect your ILO?
– Do students need to complete the AT intended for the lesson?
– Is the intended AT too easy/hard for students?
Suggestion for AT
Let’s come back to your ILOs

■ Suggest learning activities that are suitable to help achieve the objectives
■ Suggest an assessment task that is suitable to help measure the lesson

ILOs TLAs AT
DESIGNING LO
Attributes of good LOs (George Doran, 1970)

Specific: the LO Measurable: Acceptable: Realistic: Timebound:

T
A
S

should be there should there should learners there should

clear and be some ways be consensus should be able be a time scale
unambiguous of tracking within the to achieve within which
progress class on what’s being the objectives
what’s to be asked of them will be
done achieved
Think about it

Kathy was a librarian at a university . She was frequently being asked to show students how
to use the library facilities. She started her teaching by stating: “By the end of this session,
you will be able to trace a book in the library in less than two minutes using the Dewey
Decimal Classification system”.
In your classroom…

■ Make sure you can describe, in a clear and unambiguous manner, what learners will be
able to do by the end of the session
■ Tell the learners how their progress will be monitored
■ Make sure the objectives are achievable
■ Attach a deadline for completion of each milestone
DELIVERING
LEARNING
John Hattie: visible learning
■ “When teaching is visible, the learners know what to do and how to do it” and “when learning is
visible, the teacher knows whether learning is happening or not”
■ He proposed 8 mind frames to help embrace visible learning, where teachers should:
– Accept that their fundamental task is to evaluate the effect of their teaching on learners
– Recognize that success or failure in learner achievements are about what they as teachers
did or did not do
– Talk more about the learning than the teaching
– See assessment as feedback about their impact
– Engage in dialogue, not just monologue
– Enjoy the challenge and never settle for just doing their best
– Believe that it is their role to develop positive relationships in the classroom and staffroom
– Inform all about the language of learning
John Carrol & Benjamin Bloom: Mastery
learning
■ Teachers should:
– Organize the subject matter to be taught into manageable learning units
– Develop specific learning objectives for each unit
– Introduce appropriate formative and summative assessment measures
– Allow sufficient time for learners to address errors and reach desired level of
mastery
As a teacher, you should….

■ Tell students what they will be able to do once they have mastered the subject matter
■ Allow them sufficient time to master the content of the lesson
■ Conduct frequent assessments to ensure they have mastered it
■ Don’t move to the next level till they have demonstrated mastery of the present level
■ Encourage the learners not to be fazed if they fail but to learn from their mistakes and
put things right
Gagne’s 9 levels of learning

enhance
retention
provide
feedback
Assess
performance
Elicit
performance
provide
guidance
present
content
Stimulate
prior learning
Set out
objectives
Gain attention
■ Grab attention: using interesting examples/stimuli
■ Set out objectives: tell students what they will able to do by the end of the lesson
■ Stimulate prior learning: test their prior knowledge/understanding
■ Present content: present the organized content of learning
■ Provide guidance: support students to remember the information by using examples and
other relevant techniques
■ Elicit performance: get students to demonstrate what they have understood
■ Assess performance: assess their performance of the lesson
■ Provide assessment: provide feedback for improvement
■ Enhance retention: get students to understand what they have learned and apply in
different context
EVALUATION OF
LEARNING
Jonathan Tummons: evaluation of
lifelong learning
■ What should be evaluated?
– Things that have an impact on performance: skills. Knowledge, mastery
■ How should we evaluate?
– Using techniques to gather data on the performance
■ Where and when should evaluation happen?
– Both within and across organization
■ Who should be involved in the process?
How to evaluate?

■ Instructor observation: Knowing the context of why a student acted in a particular way can provide more complete
understanding of behaviour.
■ Self-assessment: can shed light on the incidental, surprise, or unexpected learning that can occur beyond the intended goals and
objectives of a clinical course. E.g. “What surprised you when …?” or “Talk about what happened that you didn’t expect when
…”
■ Peer assessment: where individuals of similar status evaluate the performance of their peers and provide feedback, can also
help students develop a critical attitude towards their own and others’ practice (Mass et al., 2014)
■ Anecdotal notes: are the collections of information that instructors record, either by hand or electronically (Hall, 2013)
completed daily or weekly on all students and provide a snapshot of students’ range of clients and skills.
■ Classroom Assessment Techniques: documented problem solutions, directed paraphrasing, muddiest point (What was the
muddiest point in today’s lecture, the reading, the homework?).
■ Class assignments: What do you want students to learn in your course? What could they do that would show you that they
have learned it?
■ Exam: Should you assign essay questions on your exams? Problem sets? Multiple-choice questions? It depends on your
learning objectives.
THANK YOU
TEACHING
MODELS
GGGE6563: STRATEGI PENGAJARAN
 WHAT IS
TEACHIN
G MODEL?
“A model of teaching is a plan or pattern that can be
used to shape curriculums (long-term courses of
studies), to design instructional materials, and to guide
instruction in the classroom and other settings “
(Joyce & Weil, 1980)
What is teaching model?

Guideline to
A description arrangement
designing
of a learning of learning
instructional
environment environment
materials
 Help students
acquire
information, ideas,
Increase students’ Teaching
skills, values, ways
capabilities to learn influences students’
of thinking and
more easily and ability to educate
means of
efficiently themselves
expressing
themselves – as
part of learning
 Information
Teaching model
Processing
Behavioral
Direct Teaching strategies
Indirect
Teaching methodology
Lecture
Simulations inquiry
Case study Instructional Skills
Planning Evaluation
Cooperative Speech
Learning Instructional delivery Question
Interactive
Social Constructional Demonstation
Interaction study
Experiential Debate

Independent
Study
Personnal

Figure 1: Teaching frame that identify and show relationship between

teaching approaches accepted as parallel with good education practices. 34
how to translate teaching model for
teaching?
Model

Strategy

Method

Skills
Four families of teaching models
Collective energy for
learning; developing
cooperative relationships in
classroom
The social family

Behavioral Information
Capitalizing on knowledge systems -processing
about how people respond family family
to tasks and feedbacks
Ways of enhancing our
innate drive to make sense
of the world
Personal family

Individual perspectives on
self-awareness and
responsibilities
1. Information-
Processing Family
■ Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Model
of Memory Storage (1971)
Gagne’s Information Processing Model

■ The sensory register picks up all the sensations or stimuli (smells, sounds,
etc.) reaching our receptors (body mechanisms to perform activities such
as smelling, tasting, etc.) from our environment. The capacity of sensory
memory is quite large, however sensory information only lasts for
milliseconds in the sensory register.

■ The short-term memory is seen as a temporary store (one to three seconds)

for a limited amount of information. If information is not attended to and
encoded so as to pass into long-term memory it decays. Long-term
memory holds information which, unlike in previous stores, does not
decay but seems to be permanent. There are three categories of long-term
memory:

■ Semantic Memory for verbal information or meaning. These memories are

stored as propositions, images, and schemata.

■ Episodic Memory for events and for information related to a particular

place and time

■ Procedural Memory for how to do things. It takes longer to learn a

procedure, but once learned, this knowledge tends to be remembered for a
long time.
2. Behavioral Systems Family
Direct Instruction (Engelmann &
Becker, 1977)

■ A teaching technique involves

the use of a teacher’s skill to
demonstrate @ perform a
certain activity in the class.
■ Teacher has a strong control
over what is learnt in the
classroom, provides feedback,
monitoring students, grading
work and strict classroom rules
& regulations. (Teacher-
cantered).

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/educationx92x1/chapter/direct-instruction/
Mastery Learning (Blooms, 1968)
Bloom observed that teachers' traditional practice was to organize curriculum
content into units and then check on students' progress at the end of each unit.
These checks on learning progress, he reasoned, would be much more valuable
if they were used as part of the teaching and learning process to provide
feedback on students' individual learning difficulties and then to prescribe
specific remediation activities.

Carry out remedial

Determine learning Teach pupils with effective activities for pupils who
Evaluate learning result by
outcomes by planning teaching method & have not fully mastered
diagnostic test &
explicit learning objective technique (use of suitable certain skills & provide
summative test (level of
(based on students’ learning materials to suit enrichment activities for
mastering & achievement)
performance). different learning styles) pupils who have mastered
the lesson.
Programmed Instruction Model (Skinner, 1920s)

• a method of presenting new subject matter to students through a graded sequence of controlled
steps with corresponding activities.

• Students work through the programmed material at their own speed independently and assess
their own comprehension after each step through exam questions or filling in a diagram. This
method consists of a network of tests and statements which direct the student accordingly
depending on their pattern of errors.

Specify a goal,
Develop a series
which means Identify the level Provide the
of steps to guide
decide on what of skills of the appropriate
learners where
needs to be learners reinforcement
they should be
learned
3. Personal Family
Non-directive teaching

Based on Carl Rogers’

Therefore instruction
work, he believes that
should be based on
positive human
concepts of human
relationships enable
relations
people to grow.
Phase 1: Defining the helping situation
Teacher encourages free expression of feelings
Phase 3: Developing insight
Student discusses problem.
Teacher supports student.
Phase 5: Integration
Student gains further insight & develops more
positive actions.
Teacher is supportive.
Phase 2: Exploring the problem
Student is encouraged to define problem.
Teacher accepts and clarifies feelings.
Phase 4: Planning & decision making
Student plans initial decision making.
Teacher clarifies possible decisions.
Action outside the interview
Student initiates positive actions,
4. Social Family
Role playing (Shaftel, 1970)
■ Emphasize the social nature of learning
■ stimulate students both socially and intellectually
■ Improves interpersonal skills and enhances communication

Preparation and
Student The discussion
explanation of the
preparation of the The role-playing after the role-
activity by the
activity playing activities
teacher
Group investigation (Thelan, 1960)

■ students are provided with opportunities to experience democratic decision making and
problem solving
■ this model also provides educators with an opportunity to integrate subject areas such as
science, language arts, and math with social studies.
How to implement? (as suggested by
Gallenstein)
■ either students or the instructor identifies a broad topic of concern
■ Students then brainstorm subtopics that would fall under the designated topic
■ the teacher might narrow down the list of possible topics to a manageable four or five and
invite students to vote on which topic most interests them
■ students meet in their learning teams and determine how their subtopic could be investigated
■ Students are encouraged to develop a set of questions that guide their study
■ The students then organize information into a written report
■ Each learning team shares its findings with the class in a creative format
■ class members evaluate each group’s presentation

http://www.socialstudies.org/sites/default/files/publications/yl/1301/130106.html
For next class…

■ Read a chapter (pg 91-101 only). I’ve uploaded in UKM Folio under this week topic.
■ Decide which one do you want to present in groups of 4
– ATKINSON’S THEORY OF ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
– SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
– PERSON-ORIENTATED / HUMANISTIC APPROACHES
■ Present your findings (summary) in a mind map. Make it simple for us to understand!
THANK YOU