Chapter 6 Soil Compaction

Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan
Chapter 6
Soil
Compaction
© 2017 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
1
website, in whole or in part.
6.2 Compaction – General Principles

Compaction, in general, is the densification of soil by
removal of air, which requires mechanical energy.
The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of

its dry unit weight.
When water is added to the soil during compaction, it acts

as a lubricant between the soil particles.
The soil particles slip over each other and move into a
densely packed position.
2
6.1 Introduction
In the construction of highway embankments, earth dams,
and many other engineering structures the loose soils must
be compacted to increase their unit weights.
Compaction increases the bearing capacity of foundations

constructed over them.
Compaction decreases the amount of undesirable settlement

of structures and increases the stability of slopes of
embankments.
3

As we see from the figure below, dry unit weight after
compaction first increases as the moisture content
increases.
4

Note that at a moisture content w = 0, the moist unit
weight is equal to the dry unit weight, or .
When the moisture content is gradually increased and the

same compactive effort is used for compaction, the weight
of the soil solids in a unit volume gradually increases.
However, the dry unit weight at this moisture content is

given by .
5

Beyond a certain moisture content w = w2 in the previous
figure, any increase in the moisture content tends to reduce
the dry unit weight.
The moisture content at which the maximum dry unit weight

is attained is generally referred to as the optimum moisture
content.
The laboratory test generally used to obtain the maximum

dry unit weight of compaction and the optimum moisture
content is called the Proctor compaction test.
6
6.3 Standard Proctor Test

Soil is mixed with varying amounts of water and then
compacted in three equal layers by a hammer that delivers
25 blows to each layer.
For each test, the moist unit weight of compaction ( ) can

be calculated as
W = weight of the compacted soil in the mold
V(m) = volume of the mold
7

For each test, the moisture content of the compacted soil is
determined in the laboratory.
With known moisture content, the dry unit weight can be

calculated by the equation
8

The values of can be plotted against the corresponding
moisture contents to obtain the maximum dry unit weight
and the optimum moisture for the soil.
Below is a compaction plot for a silty clay soil.
9

For a given moisture content, the theoretical maximum dry
unit weight is obtained when there is no air in the void
spaces—that is, the degree of saturation equals 100%.
The maximum dry unit weight at a given moisture content

with zero air voids can be given by
= zero-air-void unit weight
= unit weight of water
= void space = specific gravity of soil solids
10

For 100% saturation, e = wGs, so
w = moisture content
11

To determine the theoretical variation of with moisture
content, use the following procedure:
1. Determine the specific gravity of soil solids.
2. Know the unit weight of water.
3. Assume several values of w, such as 5%, 10%, 15%, and

so on.
w
4. Use the equation  zav  1
for various values of w.
w
Gs
12

The previous figure also shows the variation of with
moisture content and its relative location with respect to the
compaction curve.
Under no circumstances should any part of the compaction

curve lie to the right of the zero-air-void curve.
13

It is sometimes easier to work with density rather than unit
weight.
Thus we have the following relations:
m(kg) = density, dry density, and zero-air-

(kg / m3 ) 
V( m )(m3 ) void density, respectively
(kg / m3 )
d (kg / m ) 
3
= mass of compacted soil in the
w(%)
1 mold
100
w (kg / m3 ) = density of water
 zav (kg / m ) 
3
1
w
Gs = volume of mold
14
6.4 Factors Affecting Compaction

Soil type:
-grain-size distribution
-shape of the soil grains
-specific gravity of soil solids
-amount and type of clay minerals present
The soil type has a great influence on the maximum dry unit
weight and optimum moisture content.
15

The figure below shows 4 different compaction curves.
16

Type A compaction curves are the ones that have a single
peak. They are found in soils that have a liquid limit
between 30 and 70.
A type B compaction curve is a one and one-half peak

curve, and curve type C is a double peak curve. These
curves can be found in soils that have a liquid limit less than
about 30.
Type D compaction curves are those that do not have a

definite peak and have a liquid limit greater than about 70.
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The compaction energy per unit volume E can be described
as
E = (number of blows per layer)(number of layers)(weight

of hammer)(height of drop of hammer)/(volume of mold)
Or
E = (25)(3)(24.4)(0.3048m)/(943.3 X 10-6m3) = 591.3 X

103(N)(m/m3)
18

If the compaction energy per unit volume of soil is changed,
the moisture-unit weight curve will also change.
Referring to the figure on the next slide, we see four

compaction curves for a sandy clay with the number of
blows per each layer varying from 20 to 50.
The compaction energy used per unit volume of soil for each
curve can be calculated using the previous equation.
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20

We can draw two conclusions:
1. As the compaction energy is increased, the maximum dry

unit weight of compaction is also increased.
2. As the compaction energy is increased, the optimum

moisture content is decreased to some extent.
21
6.5 Modified Proctor Test

After the development of heavy rollers it was decided to
modify the standard proctor test.
With the changed variables, the compaction energy for unit

volume of soil in the modified test can now be calculated as:
E = (25 blows/layer)(5 layers)(44.5 X 10-3 kN)(0.4572

m)/(943.3 X 10-6 m3) = 2696 kN(m/m3)
22
6.5 Modified Proctor Test

Because it increases the compactive effort, the modified
Proctor test results in an increase of the maximum dry unit
weight of the soil.
The increase of the maximum dry unit weight is

accompanied by a decrease of the optimum moisture
content.
23
6.6 Empirical Relationships

Based on various tests, the following relationships have
been established:
= maximum dry density

= optimum moisture content (%)
= specific gravity of soil solids
= liquid limit, in percent
= percent retained on No.4 sieve
24

For sandy soil samples, we have
OMC = optimum moisture content
Cu = uniformity coefficient
E = compaction energy (kN(m/m3))
25

For granular soils with less than 12% fines, relative density
may be a better indicator for end product compaction
specification in the field.
Thus we have the relationships
Dr = maximum relative density of compaction achieved with

compaction energy E.
D50 = median grain size
26

The correlations for optimum moisture content and
maximum dry unit weight with the plastic limit of cohesive
soils are
Where
PL = plastic limit
E = compaction energy
27

For modified Proctor test, E = 2700 kN/m3
28

For fine-grained (cohesive) soils, we have
wopt (%)  (1.99  0.165ln E )( PI )

 d(max)  L  Mwopt (%) = optimum water content
with
= plasticity index
L  14.34  1.195ln E
M  0.19  0.073ln E = maximum dry unit weight
= compaction energy
29

For fine-grained soils we have a correlation for optimum
water content and maximum dry unit weight for modified
Proctor tests.
 LL 
wopt (%)  0.86( LL)  3.04    2.2
 Gs 
 d(max)(kN/m3 )  40.316(wopt 0.295 )( PI 0.032 )  2.4
LL = liquid limit
PI = plasticity index
Gs = specific gravity of soil solids
30
Example 1
 The laboratory test results of a standard proctor test are
given in the table:
a. a.Determine the maximum dry unit weight of compaction

and the optimum moisture content
b. b.Calculate and plot Dry Unit Weight versus the Moisture
Content for degree of saturation S=80, 90, 100%. Gs =
2.7 ©website,
31
2017 Cengage Learning . May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible
®
in whole or in part.
Example 2
 For a granular soil the following are given:
 -Specific Gravity = 2.6
 -Liquid Limit on the fraction passing No. 40 sieve = 20
 -Percent retained on No.4 Sieve
35
6.7 Structure of Compacted Clay Soil

If the clay is compacted with moisture content on the side of
the dry side of the optimum, as represented by point A, it
will posses a flocculent structure.
This type of structure results because, at low moisture

content, the diffuse double layers of ions surrounding the
clay particles cannot be fully developed; hence, the
interparticle repulsion is reduced.
At a given moisture content, higher compactive effort yields

a more parallel orientation to the clay particles, which gives
more dispersed structure.
37
6.7 Structure of Compacted Clay Soil

The figure below shows the variation in the degree of
particle orientation in the molding water content for
compacted Boston Blue Clay. Works of Seed and Chan have
shown similar results for compacted kaolin clay.
38
6.8 Effect of Compaction on Cohesive Soil

Properties
Compaction induces variations in the structure of cohesive
soils, which, in turn, affect the physical properties such as
hydraulic conductivity and shear strength.
This is exemplified by the figure below.
39

Properties
The previous figure shows a compaction curve.
If the clay is compacted with a moisture content on the dry

side of the optimum as represented by point A, it will
possess a flocculent structure.
When the moisture content of compaction is increased as

shown by point B, the diffuse double layers around the
particles expand.
40

Properties
A continued increase of moisture content from B to C will
expand the double layers more, and this will result in a
continued increase of repulsion between the particles.
This will give a still greater degree of particle orientation

and a more of less dispersed structure.
41

Properties
The figure below shows the general nature of the variation
of hydraulic conductivity with dry unit weight and molding
moisture content.
42

Properties
The hydraulic conductivity, which is a measure of how easily

water flows through soil, decreases with the increase in the
molding moisture content.
43

Properties
The strength of compacted clayey soils generally decreases
with the molding moisture content, as shown in the figure
below.
At approximately optimum moisture content, there is a

great loss of strength.
44

Properties
This means that if two samples are compacted to the same

dry unit weight, one of them on the dry side of the
optimum, and the other on the wet side of the optimum, the
specimen compacted on the dry side of the optimum will
exhibit greater strength.
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6.9 Field Compaction

1. Smooth wheeled rollers: Are suitable proof rolling subgrade
and for finishing operation fills with sandy and clayey soils.
1. These rollers provide 100% coverage under the wheels, with

ground contact pressure as high as 310 to 380 kN/
46

1. Pneumatic Rubber tied roller: are better in many respects than
the smooth wheeled rollers. The former are heavily loaded with
several rows of tires. These tires are closely spaced – four to six
in a row. The contact pressure under the tires can range from 600
to 700 kN/Pneumatic Rollers can be used for sandy and clayey
soil compaction.
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3. Sheepsfoot roller: Drum with a large number of projections.
The area of each projection ranges from 25 to 85 cm2.
Most effective in compacting clayey soils.
The contact pressure under the projections can range from 1380
to 6900 kN/m2.
During compaction in the field, the initial passes compact the

lower portion of a lift.
The top and middle portions of a lift are compacted at a later

stage.
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49

4. Vibratory roller: Very efficient in compacting granular
soils.
Vibrators can be attached to smooth-wheel, pneumatic
rubber-tired, or sheepsfoot rollers to provide vibratory
effects to the soil.
The vibration is produced by rotating off-center weights.
50

In addition to soil type and moisture content, other factors
must be considered to achieve the desired unit weight of
compaction in the field.
Factors include the thickness of lift, the intensity of pressure

applied by the compacting equipment, and the area over
which the pressure is applied.
The pressure applied at the surface decreases with depth,

resulting in a decrease in the degree of compaction of soil.
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6.10 Specifications for Field Compaction

Contractors must achieve a compacted field dry unit weight
of at least 90 to 95% of the maximum dry unit weight
determined in the laboratory.
This specification for relative compaction R can be

expressed as
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6.10 Specifications for Field Compaction

In the compaction of granular soils, specifications are
sometimes written in terms of the required relative density
Dr or compaction.
We can also write
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6.10 Determination of Field Unit Weight

after Compaction
When the compaction work is progressing in the field, it is
useful to know whether or not the unit weight specified is
achieved.
Three standard procedures are used for determining the

field unit weight of compaction:
1. Sand cone method
2. Rubber balloon method
3. Nuclear method
54

after Compaction
The sand cone device consists of a glass or plastic jar with a
metal cone attached at its top.
55

after Compaction
The weight of the jar, the cone, and the sand filling the jar is
determined (W1).
In the field, a small hole is excavated in the area where the soil
has been compacted.
If the weight of the moist soil excavated from the hole (W 2) is

determined and the moisture content of the excavated soil is
known, the dry weight of the soil (W3) can be found as
w = moisture content
56

after Compaction
After the excavation of the hole, the cone with the sand-
filled jar attached to it is inverted and placed over the hole.
Sand is allowed to flow out of the jar into the hole and the
cone. Once the hole and cone are filled, the weight of the
jar, the cone, and the remaining sand in the jar is
determined (W4), so
W5 = W1 - W4 W5= weight of sand to fill the hole and cone
57

after Compaction
The volume of the hole excavated can now be determined
as
= weight of sand to fill the cone only
= dry unit weight of sand used
58

after Compaction
The values of are determined from the
calibration done in the laboratory. The dry unit weight of
compaction made in the field can now be determined as
= (dry weight of the soil excavated from the hole)

(volume of the hole)
59

after Compaction
The rubber balloon method is similar to the sand cone method.
The volume of the hole is determined by introducing a rubber

balloon filled with water from a calibrated vessel into the hole,
from which the volume can be read directly.
The dry unit weight of the compacted soil can be determined

using
60

after Compaction
Nuclear density meters are now used often to determine the
compacted dry unit weight of soil.
The density meters operate either in drilled holes or from

the ground surface.
The instrument measures the weight of wet soil per unit

volume and also the weight of water present in a unit
volume of soil.
The dry unit weight of compacted soil can be determined by

subtracting the weight of the water from the moist unit
weight of soil.
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Example No. 3
 Determine:
 A. Dry unit weight of the of compaction of the field
 B. Relative compaction in the field
62

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

6.2 Compaction – General Principles

The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of

When water is added to the soil during compaction, it acts

Compaction increases the bearing capacity of foundations

Compaction decreases the amount of undesirable settlement

6.2 Compaction – General Principles

6.2 Compaction – General Principles

When the moisture content is gradually increased and the

However, the dry unit weight at this moisture content is

6.2 Compaction – General Principles

The moisture content at which the maximum dry unit weight

The laboratory test generally used to obtain the maximum

6.3 Standard Proctor Test

For each test, the moist unit weight of compaction ( ) can

W = weight of the compacted soil in the mold

V(m) = volume of the mold

6.3 Standard Proctor Test

With known moisture content, the dry unit weight can be

6.3 Standard Proctor Test

Below is a compaction plot for a silty clay soil.

6.3 Standard Proctor Test

The maximum dry unit weight at a given moisture content

= zero-air-void unit weight

= unit weight of water

= void space = specific gravity of soil solids

6.3 Standard Proctor Test

6.3 Standard Proctor Test

1. Determine the specific gravity of soil solids.

2. Know the unit weight of water.

3. Assume several values of w, such as 5%, 10%, 15%, and

6.3 Standard Proctor Test

Under no circumstances should any part of the compaction

6.3 Standard Proctor Test

Thus we have the following relations:

m(kg) = density, dry density, and zero-air-

6.4 Factors Affecting Compaction

6.4 Factors Affecting Compaction

6.4 Factors Affecting Compaction

A type B compaction curve is a one and one-half peak

Type D compaction curves are those that do not have a

6.4 Factors Affecting Compaction

E = (number of blows per layer)(number of layers)(weight

E = (25)(3)(24.4)(0.3048m)/(943.3 X 10-6m3) = 591.3 X

6.4 Factors Affecting Compaction

Referring to the figure on the next slide, we see four

6.4 Factors Affecting Compaction

6.4 Factors Affecting Compaction

1. As the compaction energy is increased, the maximum dry

2. As the compaction energy is increased, the optimum

6.5 Modified Proctor Test

With the changed variables, the compaction energy for unit

E = (25 blows/layer)(5 layers)(44.5 X 10-3 kN)(0.4572

6.5 Modified Proctor Test

The increase of the maximum dry unit weight is

6.6 Empirical Relationships

= maximum dry density

6.6 Empirical Relationships

OMC = optimum moisture content

E = compaction energy (kN(m/m3))

6.6 Empirical Relationships

Thus we have the relationships

Dr = maximum relative density of compaction achieved with

6.6 Empirical Relationships