U9 THE GEOSPHERE

01 THE GEOSPHERE

Characteristics
• The geosphere is the solid part of Earth. It is made up of rocks.
• The surface of the planet is called the crust. It includes the:
• continental crust, where we find land.
• oceanic crust, under the ocean.

• Different methods are used to study the geosphere.

• Direct methods: studying rock samples.
• Indirect methods: forming a hypothesis, based on our
knowledge of:
• earthquakes and seismic waves.
• temperature differences that we detect in Earth's layers.
01 THE GEOSPHERE

Structure and composition

• The crust is Earth's outer layer.
• The continental crust (20–70 km thick) is mostly lighter rocks.
• The oceanic crust (6 km thick) is mostly denser rocks

• The mantle is directly below the crust. It is about 2,900 km thick.

• The upper mantle is mostly a magmatic rock called peridotite.
• The lower mantle is even denser and contains more iron.

• The core is Earth's centre. It has a radius of 3,485 km and is mostly

made up of iron and nickel.
• The outer core is molten (liquid) because of high temperatures.
• The inner core is solid because of the high pressure.
02 MINERALS

Characteristics
• Minerals are natural, solid, inorganic substances with a specific
chemical composition and an ordered atomic structure.
• Physical properties:
1. Crystal shape and size can vary according to structure.
2. Colour can be distinctive or it can be quite variable.
3. Streak is colour of the mineral in powdered form.
4. Lustre is how the surface of a mineral reflects light.
5. Cleavage is the tendency to break along a flat, even piece.
6. Hardness is resistance to scratches, according to the Mohs Scale.
02 MINERALS

Classification
• Silicates are the most common minerals on Earth's surface.
• They contain oxygen and silicon: olivine, orthoclase, biotite and muscovite.

• Non-silicates do not contain a combination of silicon and oxygen.

• Carbonates contain carbon, oxygen and a metal: calcite, dolomite.
• Halides contain a metal and chloride or fluoride: halite, fluorite.
• Oxides contain oxygen and at least one metal: haematite, magnetite.
• Sulphides contain sulphur and at least one metal: cinnabar, galena.
• Sulphates contain sulphur, oxygen and a metal: gypsum, celestine
03 ROCKS

Characteristics
• Rock is a natural aggregate of (usually) two or more types of minerals or
mineral-like materials. They can be classified into three groups:
• Sedimentary rocks are made up of fragments of rock and other materials.
• Igneous / magmatic rocks are formed when magma cools and solidifies.
• Metamorphic rocks are formed when other types of rocks are subjected to
great heat and pressure.

• The rock cycle:

• Hot, molten magma cools to form magmatic rocks.
• Pressure and temperature transform rocks into metamorphic rocks.
• Weathering breaks down rocks into tiny fragments. These fragments
become sediment. With pressure and time, they form sedimentary rocks.
03 ROCKS

Classification
• Sedimentary rocks:
• Clastic rocks are made up of fragments of other rocks.
• Non-clastic rocks form from dissolved minerals or organic matter.
• Igneous or magmatic rocks:
• Intrusive or plutonic rocks form when magma cools slowly under Earth's surface.
• Subvolcanic rocks form when magma cool in cracks near Earth's surface.
• Volcanic rocks form when magma cools quickly on Earth's surface.
• Metamorphic rocks:
• Foliated rocks have a banded or layered appearance.
• Non-foliated rocks have a uniform appearance without layers.
03 ROCKS

Identifying minerals and rocks

• Minerals can be identified by:
• lustre: we clean the mineral and expose it to light.
• hardness: we scratch it with materials of different hardnesses.
• streak: we rub it against an object to see if it leaves a colour.
• cleavage: we try to break the mineral into flat, even fragments.

• Rocks can also be identified by:

• smell: some rocks have a characteristic smell.
• acid: some rocks react to acid by producing bubbles.
• hardness: we can try to scratch rocks with glass and other materials.
• stain: some rocks like coal can stain other materials.
04 USES OF MINERALS AND ROCKS

Uses and sustainability

• Minerals
• Halite contains salt and is used as a food preservative.
• Barite contains pigments for paints.
• Uranite contains uranium for nuclear plants.
• Rocks
• Surface mining: marble, limestone, gravel, sand
• Underground mining: coal, metal, gemstones
• Sustainable use of resources
• Using efficient technology to reduce consumption.
• Replacing scarce resources with more abundant ones.
• Recycling and reusing products to avoid extracting more.
• Protecting the environment during mining activities.
05 LANDFORMS

Characteristics
• Continental landforms: mountain, plateau,
plains, lowlands, continental shelf
• Oceanic landforms: oceanic trench, oceanic
plateau, oceanic ridge

• Factors affecting the landscape:

• Climate factors, such as temperature and rainfall.
• Lithological factors, such as resistance to erosion and weathering.
• Structural factors, such as the position and inclination of surfaces.
• Human factors, such as transportation networks and agriculture.
05 LANDFORMS

Geological processes
• There are four geological processes that shape Earth's relief.
• Weathering: rocks are broken down by physical forces and
chemical reactions.
• Erosion: weathered rock and soil disintegrate due to the
action of wind, water, ice and gravity.
• Transportation: fragments produced by weathering and
erosion are moved from one area to another.
• Sedimentation: fragments accumulate as sediment after they
have been transported.
06 EXTERNAL GEOLOGICAL AGENTS

External agents
• Surface water:
• streams (temporary or perennial flow)
• torrents (irregular flow)
• rivers (permanent flow)
• Groundwater: dissolving minerals and rocks
• Oceans and seas: causing erosion and deposition
• Wind: erosion of landforms in deserts and coastal areas
• Glaciers: in polar and mountainous regions
• Living things: constructive or destructive
06 INTERNAL GEOLOGICAL AGENTS

Internal agents
• Volcanic eruptions:
• Hawaiian: calm eruptions, fluid lava
• Strombolian: moderate eruptions, thick lava
• Vulcanian: moderate eruptions, very thick lava
• Pelean: violent eruptions, very thick lava
• Earthquakes:
• hypocentre (underground) and epicentre (surface)
• Preventative measures:
• better construction in areas of seismic activity
• avoiding nuclear plants and dams in these areas
• emergency plans in place