LATENT IMAGE

FORMATION

PRESENTED BY MODERATE BY
NISCHAL SILAKAR AVINASH GUPTA(Co-Ordinator)
BSc MIT 1YEAR
NATIONAL MEDICAL COLLEGE AND
TEACHING HOSPITAL
Meaning of Latent Image

Latent Image = Latent + Image

Latent = Existing but not yet developed, Manifest or active.

Image = A representation of the external form of a person or an object.

Latent Image = An Image on film that is not yet been made visible by
developing
Definition of Latent Image

 Radiation induced change in a grain or crystal that renders the grain readily
susceptible to the chemical action of a developer.
 An Invisible Image formed as a result of exposure to radiation and which may
later be made visible by photographic development.
 Invisible image produced on the film immediate after exposure of X-rays or
light prior to development.
Introduction of Latent Image

 Immediate after an exposure, no image can be observed on the film but

an unseen hidden image is present.
 The production of latent image is the first step of the photochemical
process.
 Latent images are produced due to the interaction between X-ray (Light)
photon & silver halide crystals.
 Latent images are made up of Silver halide crystals.
CONTD.

 Invisible change occurs in the silver halide crystals.

 Latent Image can only be visible through the development process.
 Latent image can not be seen or detected by any ordinary physical
means but can made visible only by chemical processing.
 Certain chemicals permanently fixate the latent image onto the film.
.
Historical Background

 The first public announcement of Daguerre’s process was made in 1839,but it

was not until 1938 that a reasonably satisfactorily and coherent theory of the
formation of photographic latent image was proposed.

 This theory undergoing refinement and modification ever since.

Historical Background

 The basic mechanism of latent image formation was first proposed by R.W.
Gurney and N.F. Mott in 1938 which is known as Gurney-Mott theory.

 Later in 1957, Mitchell challenged the Gurney-Mott theory which arose from the
research into solid state physics.
Historical Background

 There are close similarities between the two theories, they differ in the way they
explain the early stages in the formation of silver atoms at the sensitivity speck
of an exposed silver halide crystals.

 Gurney-Mott theory is the widely accepted theory to describe the process of

latent image formation of the film.
Radiographic Film

 Also known as image receptor (IR).

 Medium that converts the x-ray beam or transmitted light into an invisible image
and visible image after development.
 Consists of photographically active material, the emulsion, in which the images
are recorded.
 Basically made up of base, emulsion layer and gelatin (in proper proportion as
substratum and protective layer for support).
Radiographic Film
The Emulsion

 Most Important layer of the radiographic film-Heart

 Image forming layer.
 X-rays or light photons interact with emulsion and transfer subject
information to the film.
 Most of X-ray film has emulsion coated on both sides, hence called
duplitized or double emulsion film.
 Emulsion is adhered to base with adhesive layer and encased by a
protective covering called Supercoat.
 Emulsion is a suspension of Silver halide and gelatin with certain
impurities (Usually AgS).
Shape of Silver Halide 1

Crystals
 The shape may be Tabular, Cubic,
Octahedral, triangular, hexagonal or irregular
shapes.

2 3
Size of Silver Halide Crystals

 Large average grain size- High speed (sensitivity)

 Small average grain size: Slow speed
 Narrow range of grain size: fairly high inherent
contrast , narrow exposure latitude
 Wide range of grain size:- low inherent contrast ,
wide exposure latitude
 Only one grain size: very high inherent contrast,
extremely narrow exposure latitude.
CONTD.

 The method of precipitation determines the crystal size, structural

perfection and concentration of iodine.
 Silverhalide crystals are very small in size but relatively large
compared to fine grain photographic emulsions.
 Crystal size average 1 to 1.5 microns in diameter with about 6.3 x
109 grains per cubic centimeter of emulsion, and each grain
contains an average of 1,000,000 to 10,000,000 silver ions.
CONTD.

 The Silver halide crystal is trigonal shaped and the

arrangement of atoms in the crystal is cubic.

 The grain size range from 25 nanometer for high

resolution holographic film to 1.5 micrometer for
fast X-ray film. ( 1µ = 1 micron = 0.001mm)
CONTD.
 The silver halide crystal is not rigid like diamond
but under certain conditions both atoms and
electrons are free to migrate with in the crystal.
 In unexposed silver halide crystal, the halide ions
usually occupy the surface of the crystal and the
silver ions the center of the crystal.
 Therefore, the crystal has negative surface charge,
which is matched by the positive charge of the
interstitial Ag ions or Ag ions inside the crystal.
Crystal Defects

 Silver iodo-bromide grain is not a perfect crystal

because a perfect crystal has no photographic
sensitivity.

 Point Defect:
A point defect consists of a silver ion that
has moved out of its normal position in the crystal
lattice, these interstitial silver ions may move in the
crystal
CRYSTAL DEFECTS
 Dislocation: A dislocation is the line imperfection in the crystal like
brick wall containing one row with not same size bricks, causing a
strain in the wall structure.

 Chemical sensitization - Commonly produced by adding a Sulphur-

containing compound to emulsion which reacts with silver halide to
form silver sulphide. Which is usually located on the surface of
crystal and is referred as sensitivity speck which traps electron to
form latent image centers.
Sensitivity Speck

.
Sensitivity speck
 Sensitivity speck acts as an electron trap where the
electron is captured and temporarily fixed.
 It allows collection of many Ag atoms in one area after
being exposed to x-radiation (light) photons.
 During exposure, photoelectrons & Ag ions are attracted
to sensitivity centers and combine to form a latent image
center.
 The number of sensitivity centers per crystal,
concentration of crystals, size range & distribution of the
crystals in the emulsion affect the performance
characteristics of radiographic film.
Mechanism of Latent Image Formation

 Effects of Exposure
 Photoelectric effect
 Compton Effect
 Nucleation Process
 Gurney - Mott Theory
 Mitchell Theory
 Growth Process
Effects of Exposure

 When a beam of X-rays of uniform intensity penetrates

through the body tissues, each part of the beam is attenuated
depending on the particular tissue structure through which
it has passed.

 The incident rays on the intensifying screen deposit visible

light energy in the silver halide crystals primarily through
photoelectric interaction.
Effects of Exposure
Photons interact with the silver halide crystals through photoelectric
and Compton interaction.
 When the photon is totally absorbed, it’s interaction is called
Photoelectric.
 When the photon is partially absorbed, it’s interaction is called
Compton.
Effects of Exposure

Photoelectric Effect
Effects of exposure

 Photonsinteract through photoelectric

and Compton interaction.
 Interactions usually occur at the
bromine ions since they are located at
the surface of the crystal.
Effects of exposure

 Photons interact through photoelectric and

Compton interaction.
 Interactions usually occur at the bromine
ions since they are located at the surface of
the crystal.
 Both interaction releases high energy
electrons.
Effects of exposure
 Photons interact through photoelectric and
Compton interaction.
 Interactions usually occur at the bromine
ions since they are located at the surface of
the crystal.
 Both interaction releases high energy
electrons.
 Bromine ions become neutral and they
migrate out of the crystal into the
gelatin.
Effects of Exposure

 The process disrupted the crystal lattice

formation.
 Ions in the crystal are now free to migrate and
move around.
 Bromide migrate out of the crystal leaving the
silver ion, free electron and electron trap in the
crystal
Nucleation Process: Gurney-Mott
Theory
 When a photon (of light) of energy greater than a certain minimum
value is absorbed in a silver bromide crystal, it ejects electron form
the Bromine ion. The ion, having lost its negative charge, is changed
in a bromine atom.
Br- + photon Br + electron (e-)
 The liberated electron is free to wander about the crystal till it does
not encounter a impurity region or fault in the crystal.
Gurney - Mott Theory

 A site of crystal imperfection, such as a dislocation

or a AgS sensitivity speck, may act as an electron
trap where the electron is captured and temporarily
fixed.
 The electron gives the sensitivity speck a negative
electrical charge.
 This first stage of latent image formation- involving
as it does transfer of electrical charge by means of
moving electrons- is the electronic conduction stage.
Gurney - Mott Theory

 The negatively charged trap attracts the mobile interstitial Silver ions in the
crystal.
 At the speck, the silver ion is neutralized by the electron to form a single
silver atom.
Ag+ + e- Ag
 This second stage of the Gurney-Mott mechanism is termed as ionic
conduction stage, since electrical charge is transferred through the crystal
by the movement of ions-that is charged atoms.
Gurney - Mott Theory

 Unfortunately, this single silver atom is unstable. So

separation of Silver ion and electron occurs and
stage one and two happen again.

 Fortunately, during its short life the single silver

atom can act as a trap for another electron.
Gurney - Mott Theory

 When another silver ion is attracted to this site, a

stable-atom speck is formed and is called a latent
sub-image center.

 The whole cycle can occur several times at a single

trap, each cycle involving absorption of one photon
and addition of one silver atom in aggregate
Gurney - Mott Theory

 The aggregate of Silver ion is the latent image.

 The presence of these few atoms at a single latent image site makes the whole grain
susceptible to reducing action of the developer.
 In the most sensitive emulsions, the number of silver atoms required may be less than ten and
more than two.
 A single silver halide crystal may have one or many sensitivity centers in which silver atoms
are concentrated.
 Under usual conditions, the absorption of one quantum of light by silver halide grain produce
one atom of silver and one of bromine.
 The whole process of latent image formation takes only 10 -9 s.
Mitchell Theory

(1.) A free silver ion comes near to a shallow electron trap

and deepens it.

(2.) A free electron, released by exposure, and a silver ion

approach the trap together and immediately form a silver
atom. This is called a pre-image center.
Mitchell Theory

(3.) Unfortunately, as in Gurney-Mott theory, the

single silver atom is unstable, and it dissociates into
a silver ion and electron.

(4.) Fortunately, the single silver atom acquire a

second silver ion. And a free electron arrives
before the escape of this second silver ion.
Mitchell Theory

(5.) Thus a stable-atom speck is formed and is called

a latent sub-image center.
GROWTH PROCESS

 Growth is the enlargement of sub-image center until it becomes

development centers.
LATENT IMAGE FORMATION

 The emulsion has both internal & surface sensitivity due to

presence of multiple sensitivity centers in the inner side or outer
side of the crystal.

 Emulsion that form latent image in the interior is called internally

sensitive, and those on the surface is called surface sensitive
emulsions.

 Thus, photoelectrons may migrate to one of many sensitivity

centers.
 PROCESS OF LATENT IMAGE
 Developing - converts the silver ions of exposed crystals into metallic silver.
 Fixing - removes unexposed and undeveloped silver halides from the emulsion.
 Archiving stage:
Washing- remove fixer and developer solutions
Drying- hot air sets final hardening to emulsion.
Characteristics of Latent Image

 Although the pattern of X-ray intensities is invisible at this

stage, we can examine the latent image in terms of the four
essential image characteristics:
1. Subject contrast
2. Sharpness
3. Noise
4. Resolution
SUBJECT CONTRAST
The term subject contrast is often used to describe the differences in X-ray intensity to distinguish
it from the differences in optical density or luminance to which the term contrast is normally
applied.

Without subject contrast, we can not achieve any visible contrast in the eventual radiographic
image.

Causes of Subject contrast are:

1. Differential attenuation 2. Scattered radiation
Thickness Collimation
Atomic number and physical Grid
density Air Gap
Contrast agent
X-ray tube kilo voltage
Beam filtration
Sharpness

 Sharpness is concerned with how suddenly blackening changes at the boundary

between the adjacent parts.
 Types of Sharpness:
1. Geometric unsharpness
Image geometry
Focal spot size
Object-image distance
Focus-object distance
Edge penetration
2. Movement (Kinetic) unsharpness
NOISE
 Component of an image which carries no information about the
subject.
 The presence of noise reduces the quality of noise.
 Types of noise:
1. Fog- due to presence of scattered radiation.
2. Quantum noise- due to the quantum nature of X-ray
beam.
3. Electronic noise- due to limitations in the electronic
processing of the image.
Resolution

 Ability to demonstrate closely spaced structures in the subject as a separate entities in

the image.

 A system able to meet this challenge is said to demonstrate high resolution and which
can not reproduce such detail offers lower or poorer resolution.

 Depends on contrast, unsharpness and noise.

Processing of Latent Image

 If stimulated to laser beam of the proper wavelength, the process of stimulated

luminescence can release the trapped energy. The emitted light constitutes the signal
for creating the digital image.

 It causes metastable electrons to return to the ground state with the emission of a
shorter- wavelength light in the blue region of the visible spectrum.
The CR Image Receptor

 Widely Known as PSP plate.

 Made up of Europium activated Barium
Fluorohalide( mainly Bromide).
 Europium is responsible for the storage property of the
PSP.
Exposure to PSP

 In exposure, PSP absorbs x-rays and gets ionized forming

electron/hole pairs in PSP crystal.
 An electron/hole pair raises from ground state, Eu2+ to an excited
state, Eu3+
 Stored energy (in the form of trapped electrons) forms the latent
image.
Mechanism of Latent image Formation

 PSP devices are based on the principle of photo stimulated luminescence .

 The deposited energy in PSP material can be released by three different physical processes.
1. Fluorescence – prompt release of energy.
2. Phosphorescence – exponentially fading of latent image over time.
3. Planned release of trapped energy.
 There are currently two major theories for the PSP mechanism to explain the energy
absorption process and subsequent formation of luminescence centers.
1. Bimolecular recombination model.
2. Photostimulable luminescence complex (PSLC) model.
 Physical processes occurring in BaFBr:Eu2+ using the PSLC model appears to closely
approximate the experimental findings.
 There are currently two major theories for the PSP mechanism to explain the energy
absorption process and subsequent formation of luminescence centers.
1. Bimolecular recombination model.
2. Photostimulable luminescence complex (PSLC) model.
 Physical processes occurring in BaFBr:Eu2+ using the PSLC model appears to closely
approximate the experimental findings.
 “electronic” latent image imprinted on the exposed BaFBr:Eu corresponds to the
activated PSLC’s (F-centers), whose local population of electrons is directly
proportional to the incident x-ray flux.
 Latent image occurs in the form of metastable electrons, so now the PSP also known
as Storage Phosphor Screens (SPS).
Processing of Latent Image
 “electronic” latent image imprinted on the exposed BaFBr:Eu
corresponds to the activated PSLC’s (F-centers), whose local
population of electrons is directly proportional to the incident
x-ray flux.
 Latent image occurs in the form of metastable electrons, so
now the PSP also known as Storage Phosphor Screens (SPS).
Processing of Latent Image

 The light signal emitted after stimulation is picked up by a photomultiplier tube and
converted into an electrical signal.
 The electrical signal is then sent through an analog-to-digital converter to produce a
digital image.
 The stimulation by finely focused beam doesn't completely transition all metastable
electrons to the ground state.
 All residual latent image is removed by flooding the phosphor with very intense white
light from specially designed fluorescent lamps.
Latent Image at Dry processing

 One more site in Radiography where latent image is created.

 Photo thermography(PTG) and thermography (TG) are image processing methods.
 PTG uses a low-power modulated laser to record the image signal on the film generating
the latent image only for about 15 seconds.
 Then it is subsequently developed by a thermal process.
 Thermography doesn't form latent image while printing.
REFRENCE

 Chesney's’ Radiographic Imaging, John Ball & Tony Price, 6th edition, Blackwell
Publishing, Oxford, UK.
 Radiologic science for technologists (Physics, biology & Protection),Stewart Carlyle
Bushong, 9th edition, MOSBY Elsevier, Canada.
 Other various websites
PAST QUESTION

1. What is the name of the layer in screen-type film where the latent image is created?
2. What is the most significant impurity found in crystal of AgBr which helps to make crystal
defects/imperfects?
3. What is a sensitivity speck?
4. What is crystal defect? explain.
5. Explain Gurney-Mott Theory.
6. What is Mitchel theory?
7. Where do these two theories (Gurney-Mott Theory and Mitchell Theory) mainly differ?
8. Explain with reason that why Gurney-Mott theory is applicable till now.
9. What is PSP made up of?
10. Describe the processing of latent image.
11. Explain the process of formation of latent image.
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