Course : Statistic for psychology

Introduction to Statistic

Session 1
 Rules

assignments
Read

Active On time! ask

Rules
 Evaluation

Assignment
Mid Exam 20 %
30 %

Final Exam
50 %

Total
100 %
 Learning Objectives

Describe the role of statistic Apply the methods in

in psychological research descriptive statistics

Operate SPSS based on

Apply the methods in
inferential statistics
methods in descriptive and
inferential statistics and
Interpret the results of the
statistical procedures and
test from SPSS output
 References

Gravetter, F. J., & Wallnau, L.B. (2013). Statistics

for the behavioral sciences (9th. ed.). Wadsworth,
Cengage Learning. United States of America.
ISBN: 9781111839550
Introduction to Statistics
 TODAY’S OUTLINE
 Statistic, Science and Observation

 Population and Samples

 Data Structures, Research Methods, and Statistic

 Variables and Measurement

 Statistical Notation

 Frequency Distribution tables

 Frequency Distribution graph

 The Shape of a Frequency Distribution

 Percentiles, Percentile Ranks, and Interpolation

Statistic, Science and Observation
A psychologist is looking for the effect of watching
television which contain violence with the level of
aggressive in children
From that research, the psychologist get 50 data of aggresitive
behavior from the 50 children while they were playing
Then… What for is the data….???

This is a job for statistics

Statistical Methods will provide our psychologist with a set of

mathematical tools that can be used to organize and interpret
the results from the research study.
 DEFINITION

Statistics is a set of mathematical

procedures for organizing,
summarizing, and interpreting
information
 Two General Purposes of
Statistics

1. Statistics are used to organize and summarize the

information so that the researcher can see what happened
in the research study and can communicate the result to
others.

2. Statistics help the researcher to answer the general

questions that initiated the research by determining
exactly what conclusions are justified based on the result
that were obtained.
Populati on and Sample
 Population is the set of all the individuals of
interest in a particular study.

Sample is a set of individuals

selected from a population,
usually intended to represent
the population.
 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
A POPULATION AND A SAMPLE
The POPULATION
All of the individuals of
interest

The results from

the sample are Sample is
generalized to selected from the
the population population

The SAMPLE
All of the individuals selected
to participate in the research
study
 PARAMETER AND STATISTICS

When describing data it is necessary to

distinguish whether the data come from a
population or a sample.
A PARAMETER is a numerical description of population
characteristic

Parameter Population

A STATISTIC is a numerical description of sample

characteristic
STATISTIC SAMPLE
 BRANCHES OF STATICTICS

The Study of statistics has 2 major branches :

Descriptive Inferential
Statistics Statistics

Involves the organization, Involves using a sample to

summarization, and display draw conclusions about a
data population
 One problem with using samples

A SAMPLE provides only limited information

about the POPULATION.

Although sample are generally representative of their

population , a sample is not expected to give a
perfectly accurate picture of the whole population.
 There usually is some discrepancy between a sample
statistic and the corresponding population parameter.

This discrepancy is called sampling error, and it creates

another problem to be addressed by inferential statistics
 Population of
1000 college students
Population Parameters
Sample #1 Average Age = 21,3 years Sample #2
Etic Tom
Average IQ = 112,5
Jessica Kristen
65% Female, 35% Male
Laura Sara
Karen Andrew
Brian John

Sample Statistics Sample Statistics

Average Age = 19.8 Average Age = 20.4
Average IQ = 104.6 Average IQ = 114.2
60% Female, 40% Male The natural differences 40% Female, 60% Male

between a sample
statistic and
population parameter
are called sampling
error
Variable
 VARIABLE

A Variable is a characteristic or condition that

changes or has different values for different
individuals
 CONSTANT

Constant is characteristic or condition that does

not vary but is the same for every individual.
 CONSTANT
In a research study, it is common to
control variables by holding them
constant.

A research study may examine only

10-year-old children who are all tested in the
same room at 2 pm.
In this study, the participants' age, the room, and
the time of day are all constant.
 VARIABLE
Relationship between sugar
consumption (variable x) and activity
level (variable y) for sample of preschool
children

x y

x changes from one y also changes in

child to another predictable way
 Variable
Independent Dependent
Variable Variable

Bebas Terikat
 Bebas
The independent variable
Is the variable that is manipulated by the researcher.
In behavioral research, the development variable usually
consists of the two (or more) treatment conditions to which
subjects are exposed

Terikat
The dependent variable
Is the one that is observed in order to assess the effect of the
treatment
 Relationships between variables
Most research, however, is intended to examine the
relationship between variables.

Independent
a m
Ex Variable

l e :
p Is there a relationship between sugar consumption and

activity level, for preschool children.

Dependent
Variable
 Discrete & continuous variable

Discrete variable
Consist of separate, indivisible. No value can exist between
two neighboring categories. Ex. Sex = Male & Female

Continous variable
There are an infinite number of possible values that fall
between any observed value. A continuous variable into an
infinite number of factional parts.
Data Structures, Research
Methods, and Stati sti c
Two general data structure that we used to
classify research method can also be used
to classify statistical method
 Data Research Statistical
structure Method
One group with
two variable
measure for Correlational Correlation
each individual

Comparing two
groups of score Comparative T-test etc.
Scale of Measurement
 The process of measurement involves assigning numbers to
observations according to rules.
The way that the numbers are assigned determines
the scale of measurement.
Four scales of measurement are typically discussed in psychological
statistics.

nominal ordinal interval ratio

Bina Nusantara University

 There must be distinct classes but these
classes have no quantitative properties.
Therefore, no comparison can be made
Nominal
Scale in terms of one being category being
higher than the other

For example
There are two classes for the variable gender  males
and females. There are no quantitative properties for
this variable or these classes and, therefore, gender is a
nominal variable.
Other Examples:
country of origin, animal or non-animal, married vs.
single
 Nominal Scale
Suppose the hospital administrator decided to change the
numbers assigned to each diagnosis. Let's see what happens to
the distribution.

The categories appear at

different places on the x-axis
but the prevalence data are
the same. Only the label
changes
 There are distinct classes but these classes have
Ordinal a natural ordering or ranking.
Scale The differences can be ordered on the basis of
magnitude.

For example
Final position of horses in a thoroughbred race is an ordinal variable.
The horses finish first, second, third, and so on. The difference between
first and second is not necessarily equivalent to the difference between
second and third, or between third and fourth.
 Ordinal Scale

Does not assume that the intervals between numbers are equal

Example:
Finishing place in a race (first place, second place)

1st place 2nd place 3rd place 4th place

1 hour 2 hours 3 hours 4 hour 5 hours 6 hours 7 hours

 It is possible to compare differences in magnitude,
Interval but importantly the zero point does not have a natural
Scale
meaning.
It captures the properties of nominal and ordinal scales
-- used by most psychological tests.

Designates an equal-interval ordering --

The distance between, for example, a1 and a2 is the same as the
distance between a4 and a5
Example
Interval Scale

Celsius temperature is an interval variable.

It is meaningful to say that 25 degrees Celsius is 3 degrees hotter than
22 degrees Celsius,
and that 17 degrees Celsius is the same amount hotter (3 degrees)
than 14 degrees Celsius.
Notice, however, that 0 degrees Celsius does not have a natural
meaning.
That is, 0 degrees Celsius does not mean the absence of heat!
 Interval Scale

An IQ (Intelligence Quotient) score from a standardized test of

intelligence is a good example of an interval scale score.
 Captures the properties of the other types of
Ratio scales, but also contains a true zero,
Scale which represents the absence of the quality
being measured..

For example

Heart beats per minute has a very natural zero point. Zero means
no heart beats. Weight (in grams) is also a ratio variable. Again,
the zero value is meaningful, zero grams means the absence of
weight.
 Ratio Scale

Money is a good example of an

everyday ratio scale of measurement.
If we have $100 we have twice as much
purchasing power as $50.

If we have no money in our pockets,

we have absolutely no ability to purchase anything.
 Ratio Scale VS Interval Scale

Without a true zero point

(such as for IQ or personality tests),
we cannot do multiplication or division and
thus cannot talk about twice as many or half as much of a
characteristic.
It is the true zero point in ratio scales that allows us to multiply
and divide.
 The scale of measurement of our variables determines
the mathematical operations that are permitted for
those variables.
In turn, these mathematical operations determine which
statistics can be applied to the data
 Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
Properties Identity Identity • Identity • Identity
Magnitude • Magnitude • Magnitude
• Equal Interval • Equal Interval
• True Zero

Mathematical Count • Rank • Addition • Addition

Operation Order • Subtraction • Subtraction
• Multiplication
• Division

Descriptive Mode • Mode • Mode • Mode

Statistics • Median • Median • Median
• Range • Mean • Mean
Statistics • Range • Range Statistics
Statistics • Variance
• Variance • Standard
• Standard deviation
deviation
Stati sti cal Notati on
 The letter X represent Scores for a variable.

 Letter Y represent scores for a second variable.

 N is used for the number of scores in population,

and n for sample.

 The Greek letter sigma (∑) is used for summation.

 The expression of ∑X is read “the sum of the scores X”

 Exercise

Review Question :
1, 4, 7, 9, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, dan 23
From Chapter 1 “Statistics for the behavioral sciences”,
page 34-35
Frequency Distribution Tables
 Frequency Distributions

Frequency Distribution is an organized tabulation of

the number of individuals located in each category
on the scale of measurement
• We can see an entire set of scores at a glance
• Can be a table or a graph
 Frequency Distributions Tables

• Simplest frequency distribution

Often from highest to lowest, X F

9 3
but doesn’t have to be
8 2
• Use X as heading for scores and f
7 3
(frequency) as heading for how many
6 0
times that score appears
5 2
• Example :
scores X : 8, 9, 9, 7, 8, 9 ,7, 5, 7, 5 ∑f = N = 10
 Frequency Distributions Tables

scores X : 8, 9, 9, 7, 8, 9 ,7, 5, 7, 5  ∑X = 74

X f fx
9 3 27
8 2 16 ∑X = ∑fX
7 3 21 = 27 + 16 + 21 + 0 + 10 = 74
6 0 0
5 2 10

∑X = 74
 Frequency Distributions Tables

• Proportion (also called relative X f fX p %

frequency) measures the 9 3 27 0.3 30%
fraction of the total group that 8 2 16 0.2 20%
is associated with each score 7 3 21 0.3 30%
– Proportion = p = f / N
6 0 0 0 0%
• Can be fraction, but more
5 2 10 0.2 20%
often appear as decimals
TOT 10 74 1 100
• To find percentage: %
– Percentage = p(100) = f/N * 100
 Frequency Distributions Tables

• When the range of scores is very large, would probably take a

long time to make and might not be very helpful
• We can group scores into chunks to make the table more
helpful
– These groups are called ‘class intervals’
 Rules for Making a Grouped Frequency
Distribution Table

• Should have about 10 class intervals

– Any less, you start to lose information about your
data
• Width of interval should be simple (5 or 10 rather than 7 or 12)

• Bottom score should be multiple of the width of the interval you

have chosen (if width is 10, bottom should be 10)

• All intervals should be the same width

– Do not have it jump from 10 to 25 to 30
Learning
Check !!!
Do question 1 from
Chapter 2 “Statistics for the behavioral sciences”,
Page 67.
Frequency Distribution Graph
 Frequency Distributions Graphs

• 2 perpendicular lines called ‘axes’

• X-axis is horizontal (also called abscissa)

• Y-axis is vertical (also called ordinate)

• Measurement scale on X-axis, Frequencies on Y-axis

• Y-axis should be 2/3 to 3/4 the size of the X-axis so the

graph isn’t misleading
 Frequency Distributions Graphs

Graphs for Interval or Ratio Data

• Histogram
• Polygon

Graphs for Nominal or Ordinal Data

• Bar Graphs
 Frequency Distributions Graphs

Histogram :

 Height of bar corresponds to frequency

 Width of bar extends to the real limits

 Specify unit of measurement

 Modified Histogram - stack of blocks where

each block represents an individual score
 Frequency Distributions Graphs

Polygon :
 dot is centered above each score and a line is drawn
from dot to dot
 If using class intervals, center dot in middle

Bar Graph :
 Same as histogram, but spaces are left between
bars
 Graphs for Population
Distributions

Can’t always obtain an exact count for a population

 Relative frequencies
• For example, can show ratio of women to men
without knowing actual numbers

 Smooth curves  normal curve

• Showing relative changes that occur, rather than
exact scores
Shape of a Frequency Distribution
 Shape of a Frequency Distribution

• 3 characteristics that describe a distribution

– Shape, central tendency, and variability

• In a Symmetrical distribution - draw a vertical line through

middle so that one side is mirror image of the other
• In a Skewed distribution - scores pile up on one end (positive
or negative skew)  skor menumpuk pada satu sisi
– Tail is the section where the scores taper off  berkurang
 tion
t ri bu
i s
a lD
r m
No
 Normal Distribution Characteristic

Normal distributions are symmetric, unimodal,

and asymptotic, and the mean, median, and mode are all
equal.
Normal distribution is perfectly symmetrical around its center.
That is, the right side of the center is a mirror image of the left
side. There is also only one mode, or peak, in a normal
distribution. Normal distributions are continuous and have tails
that are asymptotic, which means that they approach but never
touch the x-axis. The center of a normal distribution is located
at its peak, and 50% of the data lies above the mean, while 50%
lies below. It follows that the mean, median, and mode are all
equal in a normal distribution.
Percentiles, Percentile Ranks, and
Interpolation
 Percentiles, Percentile Ranks,
and Interpolation

• Percentile rank (or just rank) - percentage of individuals in the

distribution with scores at or below the particular value
• Percentile - When score is identified by its percentile rank

– SAT score example

 la tive Fr e q u e n cy
Cumu

X f cf c%
5 1 20 100%
cf
c%  100% 
4 5 19 95%
3 8 14 70% N
2 4 6 30%
1 2 2 10%

73
 Interpolation

• Interpolation - obtaining estimates of

values that are not reported in a table
– Only estimates intermediate values

– Assumption that there is a constant rate of

change from one end of the interval to the
other
 Stem and Leaf Displays

• Alternative to a
frequency distribution
table or graph
• First digit called the
stem, last digit(s) called
the leaf
 Exercise:

Review Question :
Number 4, 7, 10, 12, 14, 18, 20, 23, and 26
Chapter 2 “Statistics for the behavioral sciences”,
pages 67 - 70