Reading Comprehensions

Saloni Bachhawat (Verbal Faculty)

• When researchers at Emory University in Atlanta trained mice to fear the smell of almonds (by pairing it with electric shocks), they found, to their
consternation, that both the children and grandchildren of these mice were spontaneously afraid of the same smell. That is not supposed to happen.
Generations of schoolchildren have been taught that the inheritance of acquired characteristics is impossible. A mouse should not be born with
something its parents have learned during their lifetimes, any more than a mouse that loses its tail in an accident should give birth to tailless mice.

• Modern evolutionary biology dates back to a synthesis that emerged around the 1940s60s, which married Charles Darwin’s mechanism of natural
selection with Gregor Mendel’s discoveries of how genes are inherited. The traditional, and still dominant, view is that adaptations – from the human
brain to the peacock’s tail – are fully and satisfactorily explained by natural selection (and subsequent inheritance). Yet [new evidence] from genomics,
epigenetics and developmental biology [indicates] that evolution is more complex than we once assumed.

• In his book On Human Nature (1978), the evolutionary biologist Edward O Wilson claimed that human culture is held on a genetic leash. The metaphor
[needs revision]. Imagine a dogwalker (the genes) struggling to retain control of a brawny mastiff (human culture). The pair’s trajectory (the pathway of
evolution) reflects the outcome of the struggle. Now imagine the same dog-walker struggling with multiple dogs, on leashes of varied lengths, with each
dog tugging in different directions. All these tugs represent the influence of developmental factors, including epigenetics, antibodies and hormones
passed on by parents, as well as the ecological legacies and culture they bequeath.

• The received wisdom is that parental experiences can’t affect the characters of their offspring. Except they do. The way that genes are expressed to
produce an organism’s phenotype– the actual characteristics it ends up with – is affected by chemicals that attach to them. Everything from diet to air
pollution to parental behaviour can influence the addition or removal of these chemical marks, which switches genes on or off. Usually these so-called
‘epigenetic’ attachments are removed during the production of sperm and eggs cells, but it turns out that some escape the resetting process and are
passed on to the next generation, along with the genes. This is known as ‘epigenetic inheritance’, and more and more studies are confirming that it really
happens. Let’s return to the almond-fearing mice. The inheritance of an epigenetic mark transmitted in the sperm is what led the mice’s offspring to
acquire an inherited fear.

• Epigenetics is only part of the story. Through culture and society, [humans and other animals] inherit knowledge and skills acquired by [their] parents. All
this complexity points to an evolutionary process in which genomes (over hundreds to thousands of generations), epigenetic modifications and inherited
cultural factors (over several, perhaps tens or hundreds of generations), and parental effects (over single-generation timespans) collectively informb how
organisms adapt. These extra-genetic kinds of inheritance give organisms the flexibility to make rapid adjustments to environmental challenges, dragging
genetic change in their wake – much like a rowdy pack of dogs.
• Q-1 The passage uses the metaphor of a dog walker to argue that
evolutionary adaptation is most comprehensively understood as being
determined by:

• (A) genetic, epigenetic, developmental factors, and ecological

legacies.
• (B) socio-cultural, genetic, epigenetic, and genomic legacies.
• (C) ecological, hormonal, extra genetic and genetic legacies.
• (D) extra genetic, genetic, epigenetic and genomic legacies.
• Q-2 Which of the following options best describes the author's
argument?
• (A) Darwin’s theory of natural selection cannot fully explain evolution.
• (B) Mendel’s theory of inheritance is unfairly underestimated in
explaining evolution.
• (C) Darwin’s and Mendel’s theories together best explain evolution.
• (D) Wilson’s theory of evolution is scientifically superior to either
Darwin’s or Mendel’s.
• Q-3 The Emory University experiment with mice points to the
inheritance of:
• (A) acquired characteristics
• (B) psychological markers
• (C) personality traits
• (D) acquired parental fears
• Q-4 Which of the following, if found to be true, would negate the
main message of the passage?
• (A) A study indicating the primacy of ecological impact on human
adaptation.
• (B) A study highlighting the criticality of epigenetic inheritance to
evolution.
• (C) A study affirming the sole influence of natural selection and
inheritance on evolution.
• (D) A study affirming the influence of socio-cultural markers on
evolutionary processes.
The primary purpose of the passage is to

A. discuss reasons an accepted business theory is being reexamined

B. present evidence that resolves a contradiction in business theory
C. describe a tenet of business practices and how that tenet can be
tested in today’s economic environment
D. argue that a counter-intuitive new business idea is, in the final
analysis, incorrect
E. present evidence that invalidates a new business model
According to the passage, all of the following are examples of
the subconscious processes by which the brain makes a
decision EXCEPT

A. analysis of information
B. ranking of information
C. comparison and contrast of information
D. rejecting information that is not pertinent
E. consulting a multitude of studies and examples
The author’s attitude toward the long-held view that decisions
should be made carefully over time expressed in lines 1–5 can
best be described as

A. dismissive and scornful

B. respectful but questioning
C. admiring and deferential
D. uncertain but optimistic
E. condescending and impatient
The author most likely mentions the results of Cramer’s
extension of Evanston’s experiment in order to

A. show that Cramer’s hypothesis was correct, while Evanston’s

hypothesis turned out to be incorrect
B. show that Evanston’s hypothesis was correct, while Cramer’s
hypothesis turned out to be incorrect
C. demonstrate that while both experiments were scientifically rigorous,
neither ended up being scientifically valid
D. illustrate that the principle of subconscious decisions continues to
work even when less information is available
E. demonstrate that Cramer’s experiment was 8% more accurate than
Evanston’s, even though his subjects had less information to work with
Passage
• The sleights of hand that conflate consumption with virtue are a central theme in A Thirst for Empire, a
sweeping and richly detailed history of tea by the historian Erika Rappaport. How did tea evolve from an
obscure "China drink" to a universal beverage imbued with civilising properties? The answer, in brief,
revolves around this conflation, not only by profit-motivated marketers but by a wide variety of interest
groups. While abundant historical records have allowed the study of how tea itself moved from east to
west, Rappaport is focused on the movement of the idea of tea to suit particular purposes.
• Beginning in the 1700s, the temperance movement advocated for tea as a pleasure that cheered but did
not inebriate, and industrialists soon borrowed this moral argument in advancing their case for free
trade in tea (and hence more open markets for their textiles). Factory owners joined in, compelled by
the cause of a sober workforce, while Christian missionaries discovered that tea "would soothe any
colonial encounter". During the Second World War, tea service was presented as a social and patriotic
activity that uplifted soldiers and calmed refugees.
• But it was tea's consumer-directed marketing by importers and retailers “ and later by brands “ that
most closely portends current trade debates. An early version of the "farm to table" movement was
sparked by anti-Chinese sentiment and concerns over trade deficits, as well as by the reality and threat
of adulterated tea containing dirt and hedge clippings. Lipton was soon advertising "from the Garden to
Tea Cup" supply chains originating in British India and supervised by "educated Englishmen". While tea
marketing always presented direct consumer benefits (health, energy, relaxation), tea drinkers were also
assured that they were participating in a larger noble project that advanced the causes of family, nation
and civilization. . . .
Cont...

• Rappaport's treatment of her subject is refreshingly apolitical. Indeed, it is a virtue

that readers will be unable to guess her political orientation: both the miracle of
markets and capitalism's dark underbelly are evident in tea's complex story, as are the
complicated effects of British colonialism. . . . Commodity histories are now
themselves commodities: recent works investigate cotton, salt, cod, sugar, chocolate,
paper and milk. And morality marketing is now a commodity as well, applied to food,
"fair trade" apparel and eco-tourism. Yet tea is, Rappaport makes clear, a world apart “
an astonishing success story in which tea marketers not only succeeded in conveying a
sense of moral elevation to the consumer but also arguably did advance the cause of
civilisation and community.

• I have been offered tea at a British garden party, a Bedouin campfire, a Turkish carpet
shop and a Japanese chashitsu, to name a few settings. In each case the offering was
more an idea “ friendship, community, respect “ than a drink, and in each case the
idea then created a reality. It is not a stretch to say that tea marketers have advanced
the particularly noble cause of human dialogue and friendship.
The author of this book review is LEAST likely to support the view that:

A. tea drinking was sometimes promoted as a patriotic duty.

B. the ritual of drinking tea promotes congeniality and camaraderie.
C. tea drinking has become a social ritual worldwide.
D. tea became the leading drink in Britain in the nineteenth century.
This book review argues that, according to Rappaport, tea is unlike other "morality"
products because it:

A. appealed to a universal group and not just to a niche section of

people.
B. had an actual beneficial effect on social interaction and society in
general.
C. was actively encouraged by interest groups in the government.
D. was marketed by a wide range of interest groups.
According to this book review, A Thirst for Empire says that, in addition to "profit-
motivated marketers", tea drinking was promoted in Britain by all of the following
EXCEPT:

A. factories to instill sobriety in their labour.

B. tea drinkers lobbying for product diversity.
C. manufacturers who were pressing for duty-free imports.
D. the anti-alcohol lobby as a substitute for the consumption of liquor.
Today, "conflat[ing] consumption with virtue" can be seen in the marketing of:

A. sustainably farmed foods.

B. ergonomically designed products.
C. travel to pristine destinations.
D. natural health supplements.
• Stoicism was founded in 300 BC by the Greek philosopher Zeno and survived into the Roman era until about AD 300. According to the Stoics, emotions
consist of two movements. The first movement is the immediate feeling and other reactions (e.g., physiological response) that occur when a stimulus
or event occurs. For instance, consider what could have happened if an army general accused Marcus Aurelius of treason in front of other officers. The
first movement for Marcus may have been (internal) surprise and anger in response to this insult, accompanied perhaps by some involuntary
physiological and expressive responses such as face flushing and a movement of the eyebrows. The second movement is what one does next about the
emotion. Second movement behaviors occur after thinking and are under one's control. Examples of second movements for Marcus might have
included a plot to seek revenge, actions signifying deference and appeasement, or perhaps proceeding as he would have proceeded whether or not
this event occurred: continuing to lead the Romans in a way that Marcus Aurelius believed best benefited them. In the Stoic view, choosing a reasoned,
unemotional response as the second movement is the only appropriate response.

• The Stoics believed that to live the good life and be a good person, we need to free ourselves of nearly all desires such as too much desire for money,
power, or sexual gratification. Prior to second movements, we can consider what is important in life. Money, power, and excessive sexual gratification
are not important. Character, rationality, and kindness are important. The Epicureans, first associated with the Greek philosopher Epicurus . . . held a
similar view, believing that people should enjoy simple pleasures, such as good conversation, friendship, food, and wine, but not be indulgent in these
pursuits and not follow passion for those things that hold no real value like power and money. As Oatley (2004) states, " the Epicureans articulated a
view-enjoyment of relationship with friends, of things that are real rather than illusory, simple rather than artificially inflated, possible rather than
vanishingly unlikely-that is certainly relevant today" . . . In sum, these ancient Greek and Roman philosophers saw emotions, especially strong ones, as
potentially dangerous. They viewed emotions as experiences that needed to be [reined] in and controlled.

• As Oatley (2004) points out, the Stoic idea bears some similarity to Buddhism. Buddha, living in India in the 6th century BC, argued for cultivating a
certain attitude that decreases the probability of (in Stoic terms) destructive second movements. Through meditation and the right attitude, one allows
emotions to happen to oneself (it is impossible to prevent this), but one is advised to observe the emotions without necessarily acting on them; one
achieves some distance and decides what has value and what does not have value. Additionally, the Stoic idea of developing virtue in oneself, of
becoming a good person, which the Stoics believed we could do because we have a touch of the divine, laid the foundation for the three monotheistic
religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam . . . As with Stoicism, tenets of these religions include controlling our emotions lest we engage in sinful
behavior.
• Question: 1
Which one of the following statements, if false, could be seen as contradicting
the facts/arguments in the passage?

1. Despite practising meditation and cultivating the right attitude, emotions

cannot ever be controlled.

2. The Greek philosopher Zeno survived into the Roman era until about AD 300.

3. In the Stoic view, choosing a reasoned, unemotional response as the first

movement is an appropriate response to emotional situations.

4. In the Epicurean view, indulging in simple pleasures is not desirable.

• Question: 2
" Through meditation and the right attitude, one allows emotions to happen to oneself (it is
impossible to prevent this), but one is advised to observe the emotions without necessarily acting on
them; one achieves some distance and decides what has value and what does not have value." In the
context of the passage, which one of the following is not a possible implication of the quoted
statement?

1. Emotional responses can make it difficult to distinguish valuable experiences from valueless
experiences.

2. " Meditation and the right attitude" , in this instance, implies an initially passive reception of all
experiences.

3. Meditation allows certain out-of-body experiences that permit us to gain the distance necessary
to control our emotions.

4. The observation of emotions in a distant manner corresponds to the second movement referred
to earlier in the passage.
• Question: 3
On the basis of the passage, which one of the following statements can
be regarded as true?

1. There were no Stoics in India at the time of the Roman civilisation.

2. The Epicureans believed in controlling all emotions.

3. The Stoic influences can be seen in multiple religions.

4. The Stoics valorised the pursuit of money, power, and sexual

gratification.
• Question: 4
Which one of the following statements would be an accurate inference from
the example of Marcus Aurelius?

1. Marcus Aurelius was one of the leaders of the Roman army.

2. Marcus Aurelius was humiliated by the accusation of treason in front of

the other officers.

3. Marcus Aurelius was a Stoic whose philosophy survived into the Roman
era.

4. Marcus Aurelius plotted revenge in his quest for justice.