Unit 5 Manufacturing Process

⚫ Dr. Jitendra Kumar Katiyar

* 1
• It is oldest
manufacturing process.
 Casting process
⚫ Casting is a manufacturing process by which a
liquid material is usually poured into
a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape,
and then allowed to solidify.

▪ The solidified part is also known as a

casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to
complete the process.
▪Casting materials are usually metals.

▪ Almost all metals can be cast.

▪Casting is most often used for making complex shapes

that would be otherwise difficult to make by other
methods.
• Open mould
in which the liquid metal is simply poured until it fills the
open cavity. (fig. a)

• Closed mould
the closed mold is provided to permit the molten metal
to flow from outside the mold cavity.
(fig. b)
• the closed mold is more important categories in
production casting operation.
⚫ Casting process divide onto two broad categories
according to types of mold used;

o Expandable mould casting

o Permanent mould casting
Expandable mould means that :
the mold in which the molten metal is solidifies must be
break or destroyed to remove the casting.
Or
After solidification of molten metal the mold is break to
remove the desired casting. (sand casting)

Expandable mould materials:

the mold are made out of sand, plaster, and similar materials.
Expandable mold casting
SAND CASTING
 Common features

Schematic illustration of sand casting showing various features.

 Sand casting
⚫ Sand casting uses ordinary sand as the primary mould
material.
⚫ The sand grains are mixed with small amounts of other
materials, such as clay and water, to improve
mouldability and cohesive strength, and are then packed
around a pattern that has the shape of the desired
casting.
⚫ The pattern must be removed before pouring, the mold is
usually made in two or more pieces.
⚫ An opening called a sprue hole is cut from the top of the
mold through the sand and connected to a system of
channels called runners. Contd…
⚫ The molten metal is poured into the sprue hole, flows
through the runners, and enters the mold cavity through an
opening called a gate.
⚫ Gravity flow is the most common means of introducing
the metal into the mold.
⚫ After solidification, the mold is broken and the finished
casting is removed.
⚫ The casting is then “fettled” by cutting off the ingate and
the feeder head.
⚫ Because the mold is destroyed, a new mold must be made
for each casting.

Contd…
Advantages Disadvantages Recommended
Application

Least Expensive in small Dimensional accuracy Use when

quantities (less than inferior to other strength/weight ratio
100) processes, requires permits
Ferrous and non - larger tolerances
ferrous metals may be Tolerances, surface
cast Castings usually finish and low
exceed calculated machining cost does
Possible to cast very weight not warrant a more
large parts. expensive process
Surface finish of
• Least expensive ferrous castings
tooling usually exceeds 125
RMS
 Casting Terms
⚫ Flask: A moulding flask is one which holds the sand
mould intact. It is made up of wood for temporary
applications or metal for long-term use.

⚫ Drag: Lower moulding flask.

⚫ Cope: Upper moulding flask.

⚫ Cheek: Intermediate moulding flask used in three-piece

moulding.
Contd…
⚫ Pattern: Pattern is a replica of the final object to be made
with some modifications.

⚫ Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two

moulding flasks that makes up the sand mould.

⚫ Bottom board: This is a board normally made of wood,

which is used at the start of the mould making.

Contd…
⚫ Moulding sand: The freshly prepared refractory material
used for making the mould cavity. It is a mixture of silica,
clay and moisture in appropriate proportions.

⚫ Backing sand: This is made up of used and burnt sand.

⚫ Core: Used for making hollow cavities in castings.

⚫ Pouring basin: A small funnel-shaped cavity at the top of
the mould into which the molten metal is poured.
⚫ Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal from
the pouring basin reaches the mould cavity.
⚫ Runner: The passage ways in the parting plane through
which molten metal flow is regulated before they reach the
mould cavity.
⚫ Gate: The actual entry point through which molten metal
enters the mould cavity in a controlled rate. Contd…
⚫ Chaplet: Chaplets are used to support cores inside the
mould cavity.
⚫ Chill: Chills are metallic objects, which are placed in the
mould to increase the cooling rate of castings.
⚫ Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the
casting so that hot metal can flow back into the mould
cavity when there is a reduction in volume of metal due to
solidification
Contd…
 Pattern Materials
⚫ Wood patterns are relatively easy to make. Wood
is not very dimensionally stable. Commonly used
teak, white pine and mahogany wood.
⚫ Metal patterns are more expensive but are more
dimensionally stable and more durable.
Commonly used CI, Brass, aluminium and white
metal.
⚫ Hard plastics, such as urethanes, and are often
preferred with processes that use strong,
organically bonded sands that tend to stick to
 Core
⚫ Used for making cavities and hollow projections.

⚫ All sides of core are surrounded by the molten metal and

are therefore subjected to much more severe thermal and
mechanical conditions and as a result the core sand
should be of higher strength than the moulding sand.
INVESTMENT CASTING:

⚫Use gravity to fill the mold.

•Mold is destroyed to remove casting
•Metal flow is slow
•Walls are much thicker than in die casting.
•Cycle time is longer than die casting because of inability of mold
material to remove heat.
⚫The investment casting process uses expendable patterns made
of investment casting wax.
 Investment Casting
Investment casting process or lost wax process
Basic steps:
1. Produce expendable wax, plastic, or polystyrene patterns.
2. Assemble these patterns onto a gating system
3. Investing or covering the pattern assembly with refractory slurry
4. Melting the pattern assembly to remove the pattern material
5. Firing the mould to remove the last traces of the pattern material
6. Pouring molten metal
7. Knockout, cutoff and finishing.
Advantages Disadvantages Recommended
Application

Close dimensional Costs are higher than Use when

tolerance Sand, Permanent Mold Complexity precludes
or Plaster process use of Sand or
Complex shape, fine Castings Permanent Mold
detail, intricate core Castings
sections and thin walls
are possible The process cost is
justified through
Ferrous and non-ferrous savings in machining
metals may be cast or brazing

As-Cast" finish (64 - 125 Weight savings

RMS) justifies increased
cost
 Shell Moulding
⚫ The sand is mixed with a thermosetting resin is allowed
to come in contact with a heated metal pattern (200 0C).
⚫ A skin (shell) of about 3.5 mm of sand and plastic
mixture adhere to the pattern.
⚫ Then the shell is removed from the pattern.
⚫ The cope and drag shells are kept in a flask with
necessary backup material and the molten metal is poured
into the mold.
⚫ Can produce complex parts.

⚫ A good surface finish and good size tolerance reduce

the need for machining.

⚫ Materials can be cast: CI, Al and Cu alloys.

Shell moulding process
 Molding Sand in Shell Molding
⚫ The molding sand is a mixture of fine grained quartz
sand and powdered bakelite.
⚫ Cold coating and Hot coating methods are used for
coating the sand grains with bakelite.
⚫ Cold coating: quartz sand is poured into the mixer
and then the solution of powdered bakelite in acetone
and ethyl aldehyde are added. (mixture is 92% quartz
sand, 5% bakelite, 3% ethylaldehyde )
Contd…
⚫ Hot coating: the mixture is heated to 150oC–
180oC prior to loading the sand. In the course of
sand mixing, the soluble phenol formaldehyde
resin is added. The mixer is allowed to cool up to
80 – 90o C. Hot coting gives better properties to
the mixtures than cold method.
 Advantages
⚫ Dimensional accuracy.

⚫ Smoother surface finish. (Due to finer size grain used)

⚫ Very thin sections can be cast.

⚫ Very small amount of sand is needed.

 Limitations
⚫ Expensive pattern

⚫ Small size casting only.

⚫ Highly complicated shapes cannot be obtained.

⚫ More sophisticated equipment is needed for handling the

shell moldings.
 Applications
⚫ Cylinders and cylinder heads for air- cooled IC
engines

⚫ Automobile transmission parts.

⚫ Piston rings
 Vacuum Molding
Uses sand mold held together by vacuum pressure
rather than by a chemical binder
⚫ The term "vacuum" refers to mold making rather
than casting operation itself
⚫ Developed in Japan around 1970
Vacuum Molding: Advantages and
Disadvantages
⚫ Advantages:
◦ Easy recovery of the sand, since no binders
◦ Sand does not require mechanical reconditioning
done when binders are used
◦ Since no water is mixed with sand, moisture‑related
defects are avoided
⚫ Disadvantages:
◦ Slow process
◦ Not readily adaptable to mechanization
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene
foam pattern which vaporizes when molten metal
is poured into mold
⚫ Other names: lost‑foam process, lost pattern
process, evaporative‑foam process, and full ‑mold
process
⚫ Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers,
gating system, and internal cores (if needed)
⚫ Mold does not have to be opened into cope and
drag sections
 Steps in
Expanded Polystyrene Process
⚫ (1)
Polystyrene
foam pattern
is coated with
refractory
compound
 Steps in
Expanded Polystyrene Process
⚫ (2) Foam
pattern is
placed in mold
box, and sand is
compacted
around the
pattern
 Steps in
Expanded Polystyrene Process
⚫ (3) Molten metal is
poured into the portion
of the pattern that
forms the pouring cup
and sprue
⚫ As the metal enters the
mold, the polystyrene
foam is vaporized
ahead of the advancing
liquid, thus filling the
mold cavity
 Expanded Polystyrene Process: Advantages
and Disadvantages

⚫ Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:

◦ Pattern need not be removed from the mold
◦ Simplifies and speeds mold‑making, because two mold halves
are not required as in a conventional green‑sand mold
⚫ Disadvantages:
◦ A new pattern is needed for every casting
◦ Economic justification of the process is highly dependent on
cost of producing patterns
Expanded Polystyrene Process
⚫ Applications:
◦ Mass production of castings for automobile
engines
◦ Automated and integrated manufacturing
systems are used to
1. Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
2. Feed them to the downstream casting operation
Four Important forming techniques are:
•Rolling: The process of plastically deforming metal by passing it between rolls.

•Forging: The work-piece is compressed between two opposing dies so that the
die shapes are imparted to the work.

•Extrusion: The work material is forced to flow through a die opening taking its
shape

•Drawing: The diameter of a wire or bar is reduced by pulling it through a die

opening (bar drawing) or a series of die openings (wire drawing)
 Terminology
⚫ Semi‐finished product
◦ Ingot: is the first solid form of steel.
◦ Bloom: is the product of first breakdown of ingot has
square cross section 6 x 6 in. or larger
◦ Billet: is hot rolled from a bloom and is square, 1.5 in.
on a side or larger.
◦ Slab: is the hot rolled ingot or bloom rectangular cross-
section 10 in. or more wide and 1.5 in. or more thick.
 Terminology
⚫ Mill product
◦ Plate is the product with thickness > 5 mm
◦ Sheet is the product with thickness < 5 mm and
width > 600 mm
◦ Strip is the product with a thickness < 5 mm and
width < 600 mm
 Plastic Deformation
⚫ Deformation beyond elastic limits.
⚫ Due to slip, grain fragmentation, movement of
atoms and lattice distortion.
Working below recrystallization
temp.
 Advantages of Cold Working
⚫ Better accuracy, closer tolerances
⚫ Better surface finish
⚫ Strain hardening increases strength and
hardness
⚫ Grain flow during deformation can cause
desirable
⚫ directional properties in product
⚫ No heating of work required (less total
energy)
Disadvantages of Cold Working
⚫ Equipment of higher forces and power
required
⚫ Surfaces of starting work piece must be
free of scale and Dirt
⚫ Ductility and strain hardening limit the
amount of forming that can be done
⚫ In some operations, metal must be
annealed to allow further deformation
⚫ Some metals are simply not ductile
enough to be cold worked.
Working above recrytallization
temp.
0. 5Tm < T <
0.75Tm)
 Advantages of Hot Working
⚫ The porosity of the metal is largely
eliminated.
⚫ The grain structure of the metal is refined.
⚫ The impurities like slag are squeezed into
fibers and distributed throughout the metal.
⚫ The mechanical properties such as
toughness, percentage elongation, percentage
reduction in area, and resistance to shock and
vibration are improved due to the refinement
of grains.
Disadvantages of Hot Working
⚫ It requires expensive tools.
⚫ It produces poor surface finish, due to the
rapid oxidation and scale formation on the
metal surface.
⚫ Due to the poor surface finish, close
tolerance cannot be maintained.
 Annealing
⚫ Annealing relieves the stresses from cold
working – three stages: recovery
Recrystallization and grain growth recovery,
growth.
⚫ During recovery, physical properties of the
cold‐worked material are restored without any
observable change in microstructure.

(a) Cold worked (b) after recovery (c) after recrytallization (d) after
grain growth
 Warm Forming
⚫ Deformation produced at temperatures intermediate to
hot and cold forming is known as warm forming.
(0.3Tm < T < 0.5Tm)
⚫ Compared to cold forming, it reduces loads, increase
material ductility.
⚫ Compared to hot forming, it produce less scaling and
decarburization, better dimensional precision and
smoother surfaces.
⚫ Warm forming is a precision forging operation carried
out at a temperature range between 550–950°C. It is
useful for forging of details with intricate shapes, with
desirable grain flow, good surface finish and tighter
dimensional tolerances.
 Rolling
⚫ Definition: The process of plastically
deforming metal by passing it between rolls.
⚫ Most widely used, high production and close
tolerance.
⚫ Friction between the rolls and the metal surface
produces high compressive stress.
⚫ Hot‐working (unless mentioned cold rolling.)
⚫ Metal will undergo bi‐axial compression.
 Hot-
rolling
Rollin
g
Cold-
rolling
 Various Configurations
vt vt
v0 v0
v0 vt vt
vt
vt vt v1 vt
v2
Two high
vt
Three high Four high
vt
v0 vt v0 v1 v2 v3

Cluster Mill Tandem rolling mill

 Planetary mill
⚫ Consist of a pair of heavy backing rolls surrounded by a large number of
planetary rolls.
⚫ Each planetary roll gives an almost constant reduction to the slab as it
sweeps out a circular path between the backing rolls and the slab.
⚫ As each pair of planetary rolls ceases to have contact with the work piece,
another pair of rolls makes contact and repeat that reduction.
⚫ The overall reduction is the summation of a series of small reductions by
each pair of rolls. Therefore, the planetary mill can reduce a slab directly
to strip in one pass through the mill.
⚫ The operation requires feed rolls to introduce the slab into the mill, and a
pair of planishing rolls on the exit to improve the surface finish
 Forging
⚫ Forging process is a metal working process
by which metals or alloys are plastically
deformed to the desired shapes by a
compressive force applied with the help of a
pair of dies.
⚫ Because of the manipulative ability of the
forging process, it is possible to closely
control the grain flow in the specific
direction, such that the best mechanical
properties can be obtained based on the
specific application.
Forging operations
Edging is used to shape the
ends of the bars and to
gather metal. The metal
flow is confined in the
horizontal direction but it
is free to flow laterally to
fill the die.

Drawing is used to reduce the

cross-sectional area of the
work-piece with concurrent
increase in length.

Piercing and punching are

used to produce holes in
metals.
 Forging operations
Fullering is used to reduce the cross-sectional area
of a portion of the stock. The metal flow is outward
and away from the centre of the fuller. i.e., forging
of connecting rod for an internal combustion
engine.

Fuller move fast and moves metal

perpendicular to the face
Fullers come in
different shapes
 Forging operations
Swaging is used to produce a bar with a
smaller diameter (using concave dies).

• Swaging is a special type of forging in

which metal is formed by a succession of
rapid hammer blows

• Swaging is a special type of forging in

which metal is formed by a succession of
rapid hammer blows

Swaging at the ends, ready for next

forming process
Classification of forging processes
By equipment

1) Forging hammer or drop hammer

2) Press forging

By process

1) Open - die forging

2) Closed - die forging
Closed and open die forging processes
 Open-die forging
• Open-die forging is carried out
between flat dies or dies of very
simple shape.

• The process is used for mostly

large objects or when the number of
parts produced is small.

• Open-die forging is often used to

perform the work-piece for closed-
die forging.

• the metal is compressed by

repeated blows by a
mechanical hammer and
shape is
manipulated manually.
 Closed-die forging (or impression-die forging)
• The work-piece is deformed between
two die halves which carry the
impressions of the desired final shape.
• The work-piece is deformed under
high pressure in a closed cavity.

Normally used for smaller components

• The process provide precision forging

with close dimensional tolerance.
• Closed dies are expensive.
 Closed-die forging operation

Flash is the excess metal, which

Typical curve of forging load vs. stroke for squirts out of the cavity as a thick
closed-die forging. ribbon of metal.
 Advantages of Forging
⚫ Discrete shape of product can be produced.
⚫ Mechanical properties and reliability of the
materials increases due to improve in crystal
structure.
⚫ In forging favorable grain orientation of
metal is obtained that strengthen the
component but forging distorts the
previously created uni‐directional fibre.
⚫ Forging reduces the grain size of the metal,
which increases strength and toughness.
⚫ Fatigue and creep strength increases.
 Disadvantages of Forging
⚫ Costly
⚫ Poor dimensional accuracy and surface
finish.
⚫ Forging operations are limited to simple
shapes and has limitations for parts
having undercuts, re‐entrant surfaces, etc
 Extrusion
⚫ The extrusion process is like squeezing toothpaste out of a tube.
⚫ Metal is compressed and forced to flow through a suitably shaped die to
form a product with reduced but constant cross section.
⚫ Metal will undergo tri‐axial compression.
⚫ Hot extrusion is commonly employed.
⚫ Lead, copper, aluminum, magnesium, and alloys of these metals are
commonly extruded.
⚫ Steels, stainless steels, and nickel‐based alloys are difficult to extrude.
(high yield strengths, welding with wall). Use phosphate‐based and
molten glass lubricants .
 Direct Extrusion
⚫ A solid ram drives the entire billet to and
through a stationary die and must provide
additional power to overcome the frictional
resistance between the surface of the moving
billet and the confining chamber.
 Indirect Extrusion
⚫ A hollow ram drives the die back through a stationary, confined
billet.
⚫ Since no relative motion, friction between the billet and the chamber
is eliminated.
⚫ Required force is lower (25 to 30% less)
⚫ Low process waste.
 Impact Extrusion
⚫ The extruded parts are stripped by the use of a
stripper plate, because they tend to stick to the
punch.
 Hydrostatic Extrusion
⚫ Another type of cold extrusion process.
⚫ High‐pressure fluid applies the force to the workpiece
through a die.
⚫ It is forward extrusion, but the fluid pressure surrounding
the billet prevents upsetting.
⚫ Billet‐chamber friction is eliminated, and the pressurized
fluid acts as a lubricant between the billet and the die.
 Extrusion Ratio
⚫ Ratio of the cross‐sectional area of the billet to
the cross-sectional area of the product.
⚫ about 40: 1 for hot extrusion of steel
⚫ 400: 1 for aluminium
 Advantages of Extrusion
⚫ Any cross‐sectional shape can be extruded
from the nonferrous metals.
⚫ Many shapes (than rolling)
⚫ No draft
⚫ Huge reduction in cross section.
⚫ Conversion from one product to another
requires only a single die change
⚫ Good dimensional precision.
 Limitation of Extrusion
⚫ Cross section must be uniform for the
entire length of the product.
 Application
⚫ Working of poorly plastic and non ferrous
metals and alloys.
⚫ Manufacture of sections and pipes of
complex configuration.
⚫ Medium and small batch production.
⚫ Manufacture of parts of high dimensional
accuracy.
 Rod and Tube Drawing
⚫ Rod drawing is similar to wire drawing except for the fact that the
dies are bigger because of the rod size being larger than the wire.
⚫ The tubes are also first pointed and then entered through the die
where the point is gripped in a similar way as the bar drawing and
pulled through in the form desired along a straight line.
⚫ When the final size is obtained, the tube may be annealed and
straightened.
⚫ The practice of drawing tubes without the help of an internal
mandrel is called tube sinking.
Rod and Tube Drawing
 Wire Drawing
⚫ A cold working process to obtain wires from rods of
bigger diameters through a die.
⚫ Same process as bar drawing except that it involves
smaller‐diameter material.
⚫ At the start of wire drawing, the end of the rod or wire
to be drawn is pointed to make for an easier entrance of
wire into the die. This pointing is done by means of
rotary swaging or by simple hammering.
Wire Drawing
Die

Die materials: tool steels or

tungsten carbides or
polycrystalline diamond (for fine
 Wire Drawing
⚫ Wire getting continuously wound on the reel.
⚫ For fine wire, the material may be passed through a
number of dies, receiving successive reductions in
diameter, before being coiled and known as Tandem
Drawing.
⚫ The wire is subjected to tension only. But when it is in
contact with dies then a combination of tensile,
compressive and shear stresses will be there in that
portion only.
⚫ Wire drawing is always a cold‐working process, need
sufficient ductility, may be annealed before drawing.
Mechanical
operations

* 85
* 86
 Sheet Metalworking Defined
Cutting and forming operations performed on relatively
thin sheets of metal
⚫ Thickness of sheet metal = 0.4 mm (1/64 in) to 6 mm
(1/4 in)
⚫ Thickness of plate stock > 6 mm
⚫ Operations usually performed as cold working

87
 Sheet metal process
⚫ Rolled metals of gauge 10 to 20 are considered
as sheet metals
⚫ The metals include steel, copper, brass,
aluminum, zinc etc.

Processes: Raw material: sheets of metal,

Shearing rectangular, large
Punching
Bending Raw material Processing: Rolling
Deep drawing (anisotropic properties)

* 88
 Sheet Metal
⚫ Product has light weight and versatile shape as compared
to forging/casting
⚫ Most commonly used – low carbon steel sheet (cost,
strength, formability)
⚫ Aluminium and titanium for aircraft and aerospace
⚫ Sheet metal has become a significant material for,
◦ automotive bodies and frames,
◦ office furniture
◦ frames for home appliances
 Sheet metal operations
⚫ Major classifications include
⚫ Shearing
◦ Blanking
◦ Piercing
◦ Punching
◦ Notching
⚫Bending
⚫Deep Drawing

* 90
 Shearing
⚫ Two or more blades are used
for cutting the sheet at
multiple or single point
⚫ Pressure is generally applied
on the top blade causing the
shear force which tears the
sheet.
⚫ The amount of force is
applied on the system using a
hydraulic press or mechanical
press
⚫ Typically used to cut large
sheets into smaller sections
for subsequent operations
* 91
Blanking

* 92
 Blanking

Definition:
sheet metal cutting to separate piece from
surrounding stock
◦ Cut piece is the desired part, called a blank
Procedure:
◦ Instead of blades a blanking press shape is used in this process.
◦ Once the sheet metal is inserted in between the blanking die and
the punch high pressure is applied on the punch
◦ The output component is ejected from the die and the scrap is
taken out

* 93
 Piercing and punching
Definition:
sheet metal cutting similar to blanking except cut
piece is scrap, called a slug
◦ Remaining stock is the desired part
⚫ The scrap is the blanked components and the remaining
sheet is the finished product.

* 94
Strip
(Scrap) Part

Blank (Part)
Slug
(Scrap)
 Notching
⚫ This is a process of removing metal into to the desired
shape from the side or edge of the sheet

* 96
 Forming Terminology
⚫ Fine Blanking ‐ dies are designed that
have small clearances and pressure pads
that hold the material while it is sheared.
The final result is blanks that have
extremely close tolerances.
⚫ Slitting ‐ moving rollers trace out
complex paths during cutting (like a can
opener).
⚫ Perforating: Multiple holes which are
very small and close together are cut in
flat work material.
⚫ Trimming ‐ Cutting unwanted excess
material from the periphery of a
previously formed component.
⚫ Shaving ‐ Accurate dimensions of the
part are obtained by removing a thin
strip of metal along the edges.
Trimming Shaving
⚫ Lancing – A hole is partially cut and then
one side is bent down to form a sort of
tab or louver. No metal removal, no
scrap.
⚫ Steel Rules ‐ soft materials are cut with a
steel strip shaped so that the edge is the
pattern to be cut.
⚫ Nibbling ‐ a single punch is moved up
and down rapidly, each time cutting off a
small amount of material. This allows a
simple die to cut complex slots.
 Clearance (VIMP)
⚫ Die opening must be larger than punch and
known as ‘clearance’.
⚫ Punching
◦ Punch = size of hole
◦ Die = punch size +2 clearance
⚫ Remember: In punching punch is correct size.
⚫ Blanking
◦ Die = size of product
◦ Punch = Die size ‐2 clearance
⚫ Remember: In blanking die size will be
correct.
⚫ Note:
◦ In punching clearance is provided on Die
◦ In Blanking clearance is provided on punch
Bending
Straining sheet metal around a straight axis
to take a permanent bend

(a) Bending of sheet (b) both compression and

metal tensile elongation of the metal
occur in bending

100
 Types of Sheet metal Bending
⚫ V‑bending - performed with a V‑shaped
die
⚫ Edge bending - performed with a wiping
die
⚫ U- bending- performed with a U-shaped
die

101
V-Bending
⚫ For low production
⚫ Performed on a press brake
⚫ V-dies are simple and inexpensive

102
 Edge Bending
⚫ For high production
⚫ Pressure pad required
⚫ Dies are more complicated and
costly

103
U bending and channel bending

* 10
4
Spring back in Bending
Springback = increase in included angle of bent
part relative to included angle of forming tool
after tool is removed
⚫ Reason for spring back:
◦ When bending pressure is removed, elastic energy
remains in bent part, causing it to recover partially
toward its original shape

105
Spring back effect in sheet metals

* 10
6
* 10
7
 Drawing
⚫ Drawing is a plastic deformation process in which a flat
sheet or plate is formed into a three‐dimensional part with
a depth more than several times the thickness of the
metal.
⚫ As a punch descends into a mating die, the metal assumes
the desired configuration.
⚫ Hot drawing is used for thick‐walled parts of simple
geometries, thinning takes place.
⚫ Cold drawing uses relatively thin metal, changes the
thickness very little or not at all, and produces parts in a
wide variety of shapes.
Drawing – sheet metal

* 10
9
Drawing
Sheet metal forming to make cup‑shaped,
box‑shaped, or other complex‑curved,
hollow‑shaped parts

Products: beverage cans,

ammunition shells, automobile
body panels

110
Shapes other than Cylindrical Cups
⚫ Square or rectangular boxes (as in sinks),
⚫ Stepped cups,
⚫ Cones,
⚫ Cups with spherical rather than flat bases,
⚫ Irregular curved forms (as in automobile body
panels)
⚫ Each of these shapes presents its own unique
technical problems in drawing

111
Deep
Drawing Tooling: similar to punching operation,
Mechanics: similar to bending operation

Common applications: cooking pots, containers, …

 Stresses on Deep Drawing
•In flange of
blank:
Bi‐axial tension
and Compression

•In wall of the

cup:
simple uni‐axial
tension
 Ironing
⚫ Makes wall thickness of cylindrical cup more
uniform
⚫ Examples: beverage cans and artillery shells

Ironing to achieve a more uniform wall thickness in a drawn cup:

(1) start of process; (2) during process
Note thinning and elongation of walls

114
 Embossing
⚫ Used to create indentations in sheet, such as raised
(or indented) lettering or strengthening ribs

Embossing: (a) cross‑section of punch and die

configuration during pressing; (b) finished part with
embossed ribs

115
 Coining
⚫ Coining is essentially a cold‐forging operation except
for the fact that the flow of the metal occurs only at the
top layers and not the entire volume.
⚫ Coining is used for making coins, medals and similar
articles.
Sheet and Plate Metal Products: Applications
⚫ Sheet and plate metal parts for consumer and
industrial products such as
◦ Automobiles and trucks
◦ Airplanes
◦ Railway cars and locomotives
◦ Farm and construction equipment
◦ Small and large appliances
◦ Office furniture
◦ Computers and office equipment

117
Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts
⚫ High strength
⚫ Good dimensional accuracy
⚫ Good surface finish
⚫ Relatively low cost
⚫ For large quantities, economical mass production
operations are available

118
WELDING

* 11
9
 Definition
⚫ Process of joining similar or dissimilar metals
by application of heat
⚫ With or without application of pressure
⚫ With or without application of filler material
⚫ Permanent joints can be produced using
welding

* 12
0
Welding Process
A concentrated heat source melts the material in the
weld area; the molten area then solidifies to join the
pieces together

Sometimes a filler material is added to the molten pool

to strengthen the weld
Joining methods
⚫ Welding
◦ Fusion
◦ Brazing
◦ Soldering

* 12
2
Classification of Welding

* 12
3
Classification of Welding

* 12
4
 Physics of Welding
⮚In fusion welding, a source of high-density heat
energy raises the temperature of the surfaces
enough to cause localized melting;
⮚if the heat density (power ÷ surface area) is too
low, the heat is conducted away as fast as it is
added and melting does not occur
Terminology
⚫ Base metal: work piece or part to be
joined.
⚫ Weld bead: material deposited by
welding process
⚫ Puddle :portion of base metal at the joint
⚫ Weld pass: movement of welding torch
or arc from one end to other
⚫ Tack weld: temporary welding done at
the ends
* 12
6
Weld bead

bead
* 12
7
 Puddle

Puddle portion
* 12
8
 Tack weld

Tack

* 12
9
Gas welding
⚫ It is a fusion welding process
⚫ Heat melts the parent metal and fuses with the
filler metal which are in molten stage
⚫ Suitable for the sheets having thickness 2 to 50
mm and materials having thickness 15 mm
⚫ Filler materials generally in the form of rods
which can melt and form as filler and creates a
flux bond
⚫ Uses a high-temperature flame from the
combustion of acetylene and oxygen
* 13
0
GAS WELDING EQUIPMENT...
1. Gas Cylinders
Pressure
Oxygen – 125 kg/cm2
Acetylene – 16 kg/cm2
2. Regulators
Working pressure of oxygen 1 kg/cm2
Working pressure of acetylene 0.15 kg/cm2
Working pressure varies depends upon the thickness of the
work pieces welded.
3. Pressure Gauges
4. Hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Check valve
7. Non return valve
Process

* ME 1001 Unit-3 Lecture -1 13

2
Equipment

* ME 1001 Unit-3 Lecture -1 13

3
* ME 1001 Unit-3 Lecture -1 13
4
* ME 1001 Unit-3 Lecture -1 13
5
Flashback Arrestors
These are positioned on both the fuel gas and oxygen
supply between the hose and the regulator. Their purpose
is to prevent the return of a flame through the hose into
the regulator.

* 13
6
 Welding torch
Oxygen and acetylene are delivered to the torch by separate
hoses. Each gas is controlled by a valve on the torch. The two
gases mix in the torch and after they are ignited burn at the
nozzle.

Mixer Needle valves

* 13
7
Combustion cycle of oxyacetylene flame

⚫2 C2H2 + 5 O2 = 4 CO2 + 2
H2O + heat (300Kcal/mole)

⚫Temperature ranges to 3300

deg c
* 13
8
The Oxy-acetylene welding Flame
Reducing or Carburizing Inner Cone
Excess acetylene (0.9:1)
(Alloy steels and
aluminium alloys) Max. Temp.
Zone
Oxidizing
Excess oxygen (1.5:1)
Secondary Combustion
(Brasses, Bronzes, copper) envelope
Neutral
Equal acetylene & oxygen
(low carbon steel, mild Acetylene
steels). feather

* 13
9
Oxy-acetylene flames
The Oxy-acetylene welding Flame

Carburising Neutral Oxidising

* 14
1
 The Oxy-acetylene welding Flame
The oxy-acetylene flame has two distinct zones.
The inner zone (Primary combustion Zone) is the hottest part
of the flame. The welding should be performed so as the point
of the inner zone should be just above the joint edges.
C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2

Primary Combustion zone

* 14
2
The outer zone the secondary combustion
envelope performs two functions
• Preheats the joint edges
• Prevents oxidation by using some of the surrounding
oxygen from weld pool for combustion and gives off
carbon dioxide and water vapour

CO + H2 + O2 CO2 + H2O

Secondary Combustion zone

* 14
3
 Application of Gas Welding
⚫ For joining most ferrous and non-ferrous metals, carbon
steels, alloy steels, cast iron, aluminum and its alloys,
nickel, magnesium, copper and its alloys, etc.
⚫ For joining thin metals.
⚫ For joining metals in automotive and aircraft industries.
⚫ For joining metals in sheet metal fabricating plants.
⚫ For joining materials those requires relatively slow rate
of heating and cooling, etc.

* 14
4
 Advantages of Gas Welding
⚫ Portable and Most Versatile Process
⚫ Better Control over the Temperature
⚫ Better Control over Filler-Metal Deposition
Rate
⚫ Suitable to Weld Dissimilar Metals
⚫ Low Cost and Maintenance

* 14
5
 Disadvantages of Gas Welding
⚫ Not Suitable for Heavy Section
⚫ Less Working Temperature of Gas Flame
⚫ Slow Rate of Heating
⚫ Not Suitable for Refractory and Reactive
Metals
⚫ Larger Heat affected Area
⚫ Flux Shielding is not so Effective
⚫ Problem in Storage and Handling of Gases

* 14
6
Arc welding
⚫ Also known as metal electrode welding
⚫ Classified into two
◦ Metal arc welding
◦ Carbon arc welding

* 14
7
ELECTRIC ARC WELDING
The welding in which the electric arc is produced to
give heat for the purpose of joining two surfaces
is called electric arc welding.

The joining by fusing of two or more pieces of

metal together by using the heat produced from an
electric arc .
How an arc is formed?
⚫The arc is like a flame
of intense heat that is
generated as the
electrical current passes
through a highly
resistant air gap.
 Working
⚫ The work piece is clamped with a cable which is the cathode
(-) terminal.
⚫ The arc is connected to the anode (+) terminal of the Dc
supply.
⚫ When these two are brought together at a distance of the 2-
4mm the current continues to flow causing the plasma , and an
electric arc is formed which fuses the two base metals
⚫ Approximately 1Kwh of electricity will a heat of around 1000j
of heat .
⚫ The temperature of the arc is around 6000 to 7000 deg c

* 15
0
Metal arc welding process

* 15
1
Arc Welding
 Arc welding equipment
⚫ Comprises of the following components
⚫ Power source (AC or DC)
⚫ Electrode
⚫ Electrode holder
⚫ Ground clamp
⚫ Cabels

* 15
3
Diagrammatic view

* 15
4
Pictorial view

* 15
5
Arc welding power sources
⚫ Transformer (AC)
⚫ Rectifier (AC to DC)
⚫ Generator (AC or DC)

* 15
6
Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc welding
Alternating Current (from Transformer)

More efficiency
Power consumption less
Cost of equipment is less
Higher voltage – hence not safe
Not suitable for welding non ferrous metals
Not preferred for welding thin sections
Any terminal can be connected to the work or electrode
Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc welding
Direct Current (from Generator)
Less efficiency
Power consumption more
Cost of equipment is more
Low voltage – safer operation
suitable for both ferrous non ferrous metals
preferred for welding thin sections
Positive terminal connected to the work
Negative terminal connected to the electrode
 Polarities
⚫ Work piece can be interchanged between
cathode and anode and similarly the electrode
⚫ If the electrode is anode and work piece is
clamped to cathode it is called ‘Straight
polarity’
⚫ If the electrode is cathode and the work piece
is anode it is reverse polarity

* 15
9
 Electrodes
⚫ Bifurcated into two variants
⚫ Consumable or cruisible electrode
⚫ Non consumable

* 16
0
Consumable electrode

* 16
1
* 16
2
Properties of flux coating
⚫ Gas shielding
⚫ Slag
⚫ Arc stabilizing
⚫ De oxidizing the weld

* 16
3
 Applications of Arc Welding
⚫ Many things around us are welded …
◦ Pipelines that bring fresh water
◦ Towers that carry electricity to houses
◦ Cars and buses that take people where they need to go
⚫ Arc welding continues to be used extensively in the construction of steel
structures and in industrial fabrication.
⚫ The process is used primarily to weld ironThe process is used primarily to weld
iron and steelsThe process is used primarily to weld iron and steels (including
stainless steelThe process is used primarily to weld iron and steels (including
stainless steel) but aluminiumThe process is used primarily to weld iron and
steels (including stainless steel) but aluminium, nickelThe process is used
primarily to weld iron and steels (including stainless steel) but aluminium, nickel
and copperThe process is used primarily to weld iron and steels (including
stainless steel) but aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can also be welded with
this method.
⚫ It dominates other welding processes in the maintenance and repair industry, and
though flux-cored arc welding is growing in popularity
⚫ Is popular because it can be used in the field without complicated
equipment and gases
 Advantages of arc welding
⚫ 1. Simple welding equipment
⚫ 2. Portable
⚫ 3. Inexpensive power source
⚫ 4. Relatively inexpensive equipment
⚫ 5. Welders use standard domestic current.
⚫ 6. Process is fast and reliable
⚫ 7. Short learning curve
⚫ 8. Equipment can be used for multiple functions
⚫ 9. Electric arc is about 5,000 oC
⚫ 10. Used for maintenance, repair, and field construction
 Disadvantages
⚫ Not clean enough for reactive metals such as
aluminium and titanium.
⚫ The deposition rate is limited because the
electrode covering tends to overheat and fall off.
⚫ The electrode length is ~ 35 mm and requires
electrode changing lower the overall
production rate.
 Cleaning tools
⚫ Chipping hammer
⚫ Metal wire brush

* 16
7
 Welding techniques
⚫ Forehand welding
⚫ Backhand welding

* 16
8
Forehand welding

* 16
9
Backhand welding

* 17
0
Welded Joint
Fusion zone
The area of base metal and filler metal that has been
completely melted
Weld interface
A thin area of base metal that was melted or partially melted
but did not mix with the filler metal
Heat affected zone
The surrounding area of base metal that did not melt, but was
heated enough to affect its grain structure
Types of welding joints

* 17
2
 Introduction
⚫ Soldering and brazing

provide permanent joint to

bond metal pieces.

⚫ Soldering and brazing

process lie some where
in between fusion welding
and solid state welding.
Lathe and Drilling

Dr. Jitendra Kumar Katiyar

 Manufacturing process
Manufacturing process
⚫ It is a process which involves
• It is a process which involves thethe
conversion of raw materials into desired
conversion of raw materials into desired
product.
product.
 Methods involved
Material removal operation
⚫ Material removal
• It involves removal of extra material from the
⚫ Assembly or joining process
given material to obtain required dimension of
⚫ Finishing process
product.
• Material removal can be in small scale or large
scale
small scale – fitting, craftwork etc
large scale – industrial products.
 Tool Tool
• A⚫tool
A tool
is aisdevice
a device
useuse to carry
to carry out out various
various
manufacturing
manufacturing operation.
operation.
– ◦ Hand
Hand tools.
tools.
– ◦ Machine
Machine tools
tools
 Hand tools
• Tools which are used manually by human
effort.
– Files
– hacksaw
 Machine tools
• Defined as power driven machine which
accomplishes the cutting operation or
machining operations.
Lathe Practice
 Introduction
Lathe is a machine, which removes the
metal from a piece of work to the
required shape &size
 Types of Lathe
Speed Lathe
A simple lathe driven by a motor
Engine Lathe
The most common form of lathe, motor driven
and comes in large variety of sizes and shapes.
Has speed control, feeds
Bench Lathe
A bench top model usually of low power used to
make precision machine small work pieces.
Other Special lathes - Tracer Lathes etc.
a lathe that has the ability to follow a template
to copy a shape or contour.
Automatic Lathe
A lathe in which the work piece is automatically fed
and removed without use of an operator. Cutting
operations are automatically controlled by a
sequencer of some form
Turret Lathe
lathe which have multiple tools mounted on turret
either attached to the tailstock or the cross-slide,
which allows for quick changes in tooling and cutting
operations.
Computer Controlled Lathe
A highly automated lathe, where both cutting,
loading, tool changing, and part unloading are
automatically controlled by computer coding.
Component Description
Detailed View of the Carriage
 Major components
• Bed
• Head stock
• Tail stock
• Carriage assembly
• Main drive
• Bed
– It is the foundation part of lathe and supports all its parts.
– Top of bed has a guide way which is machined to precision.
• Head stock
– Main spindle projects out from headstock.
– Housing comprises of feed gear box and cone pulley.
– Rigidly mounted on bed.
• Tail stock
– Movable part of the lathe that carries dead
centre.
– Main function is to support the free end of the
work piece.
– Also used to clamp tools like twist drill and
reamers for making holes.
– Tailstock is mounted loosely on guide ways can
be moved and locked in position.
• Compound rest
– Mounted on top of cross slide and supports the tool post.
– It can be swiveled at an angle to perform taper turning
operation.
• Tool post
– It is used to clamp the tool holder in position.

• Apron
– It is the part which is fitted saddle, facing operator.
– It houses levers, hand wheels mechanism for manual and
automatic movement of carriage assembly.
• Lead screw
– It is a rod which runs longitudinally in front of lathe bed.
– The rotation of lead screw moves the carriage to and fro
longitudinally during thread cutting operation.
Cutting Tools
Single point cutting tool
Types of Cutting Tools
 Lathe Operations
Turning:produce straight, conical, curved, or grooved workpieces

Facing: to produce a flat surface at the end of the part or for making
face grooves.

Boring: to enlarge a hole or cylindrical cavity made by a previous

process or to produce circular internal grooves.

Drilling: to produce a hole by fixing a drill in the tailstock

Threading: to produce external or internal threads

Knurling: to produce a regularly shaped roughness on cylindrical

surfaces
Lathe Operations
 Work Holding Devices

Fig : (a) and (b) Schematic illustrations of a draw-in-type collets. The workpiece is placed in
the collet hole, and the conical surfaces of the collet are forced inward by pulling it with
a draw bar into the sleeve. (c) A push-out type collet. (d) Workholding of a part on a
face plate.
Boring
 Boring
⚫ Boring always involves the enlarging of an existing hole, which
may have been made by a drill or may be the result of a core in a
casting.
⚫ An equally important and concurrent purpose of boring may be
to make the hole concentric with the axis of rotation of the
workpiece and thus correct any eccentricity that may have
resulted from the drill drifting off the centerline. Concentricity is
an important attribute of bored holes.
⚫ When boring is done in a lathe, the work usually is held in a
chuck or on a faceplate. Holes may be bored straight, tapered, or
to irregular contours.
⚫ Boring is essentially internal turning while feeding the tool
parallel to the rotation axis of the workpiece.
 Boring
⚫ The same principles are used for boring as for turning.
⚫ The tool should be set exactly at the same height as the axis
of rotation. Slightly larger end clearance angles sometimes
have to be used to prevent the heel of the tool from rubbing
on the inner surface of the hole.
 Boring
⚫ Because the tool overhang will be greater, feeds and depths
of cut may be somewhat less than for turning to prevent tool
vibration and chatter.
⚫ In some cases, the boring bar may be made of tungsten
carbide because of this material's greater stiffness.
⚫ The boring tool is a single-point cutting tool.
⚫ Hole quality, finish boring can typically achieve holes
within tolerances of IT9.
⚫ Surface finishes better than Ra 1 micron can be achieved.
Three jaw chuck

- For holding
cylindrical stock
centered.
- For facing/center
drilling the end of
your aluminum stock

Four-Jaw Chuck

- This is independent
chuck generally has
four jaws , which are
adjusted individually
on the chuck face by
means of adjusting
screws
 Collet Chuck
Collet chuck is
used to hold
small workpieces
⚫ Thin jobs can be held by means of
magnetic chucks.

Magnetic
Chuck

Thin jobs can be

held by means of
magnetic chucks.
Simple formula
 Simple Problems

Problem -1
A mild steel rod having 50 mm diameter and 500 mm length is to be
turned on a lathe. Determine spindle speed and the MRR to reduce the
rod to 45 mm in one pass when cutting speed is 30 m/min and a feed
of 0.7 mm/rev is used.
Solution
Given data: D = 50 mm, Lj = 500 mm
v = 30 m/min, f = 0.7 mm/rev
Substituting the values of v and D in

V = ΠDN/1000 M/min
Required spindle speed as: N = 191
rpm
MRR = 100*V*D*f
 Simple Problems

Problem -2
Determine the angle at which the compound rest would be swiveled for
cutting a taper on a work piece having a length of 150 mm and outside
diameter 80 mm. The smallest diameter on the tapered end of the rod
should be 50 mm and the required length of the tapered portion is 80
mm.
Solution
Given data: D1 = 80 mm, D2 = 50 mm, Lj = 80 mm (with usual
notations)
tan α = (80-50) / 2×80 or α = 10.620

The compound rest should be swiveled at 10.62o

Drilling Machine…
 Drilling
• Drilling is the operation of producing circular hole in the
work-piece by using a rotating cutter called drill.

• The machine used for drilling is called drilling machine.

• The drilling operation can also be accomplished in lathe, in

which the drill is held in tailstock and the work is held by
the chuck.

• The most common drill used is the twist drill.

 Drilling Machine
• It is the simplest and accurate machine used in production
shop.
• The work piece is held stationary ie. Clamped in position
and the drill rotates to make a hole.

• Types :-
a) Based on construction:
Portable, Sensitive, Radial, up-right, Gang,
Multi-spindle
b)Based on Feed:
Hand and Power driven
 Radial Drilling Machine
• It the largest
and most
versatile
used fro
drilling
medium to
large and
heavy work
pieces.
 Sensitive Drilling Machine
• Drill holes
from 1.5 to
15mm
• Operator
senses the
cutting action
so sensitive
drilling
machine
Up-Right Drilling Machine

• Drill holes
upto 50mm

• Table can
move
vertically
and
radially
 Drill Materials
The two most common types are
1. HSS drill
- Low cost
2. Carbide- tipped drills
- high production and in CNC machines
Other types are
Solid Carbide drill, TiN coated drills, carbide coated
masonry drills, parabolic drills, split point drill
Drill fixed to the spindle
Drilling operations

●Drilling Centre
Hole
●Drilling Deep
Holes
●Drilling Thin
Material
Tool Nomenclature
Tool Holding devices
• The different methods used for holding drill in
a drill spindle are
• By directly fitting in the spindle hole.
• By using drill sleeve
• By using drill socket
• By using drill chuck
Work Holding Devices
Drilling operations…
• Operations that can be performed in a drilling
machine are

⮚ Drilling
⮚ Reaming
⮚ Boring
⮚ Counter boring
⮚ Countersinking
⮚ Tapping
Operations in drilling machine
Reamers :- Types of cutters
Multi tooth cutting tool
Accurate way of sizing and finishing the pre-
existing hole.
Accuracy of ±0.005mm can be achieved

Boring Tool:-
Single point cutting tool.
Boring tool is held in the boring bar which has the
shank.
Accuracy of ±0.005mm can be achieved.
Countersinks :-
Types of cutters
Special angled cone shaped enlargement at the end
of the hole
Cutting edges at the end of conical surface.
Cone angles of 60°, 82°, 90°, 100°, 110°, 120°

Counter Bore Tool:-

Special cutters uses a pilot to guide the cutting
action .
Accommodates the heads of bolts.
Counter bore and spot facing
 Types of cutters
Combined Countersinks and central drill :-
Special drilling tool to start the hole accurately.
At the end it makes countersinks in the work piece.
Gun drill :-
Machining of lengthy holes with less feed rates.
To overcome the heating and short life of the normal
drill tool
 Types of cutters
Tapping:-
For cutting internal thread
Multi cutting edge tool.
Tapping is performed either
by hand or by machine.
Minor dia of the thread is
drilled and then tapping is
done.
 Work Holding Devices
• 1. Machine Table Vice
 Work Holding Devices
• Step Blocks
• Clamps
• V-Blocks
• Angles
• Jigs
• T- Slots Bolt
 Definitions
• Cutting Speed (v):-
It’s the peripheral speed of the drill
v = Π*D*N where
D = dia of the drill in m
N = Speed of rotation in rpm
Feed Rate (f):-
It’s the movement of drill along the axis (rpm)
Depth of Cut (d):-
The distance from the machined surface to the drill axis
d=D/2
Material Removal Rate:-
It’s the volume of material removed by the drill per unit
time
MRR = (Π D2 / 4) * f * N mm3 / min

Machining Time (T) :-

It depends upon the length (l) of the hole to be drilled ,
to the Speed (N) and feed (f) of the drill
t = L / f N min
 Precautions for Drilling machine
• Lubrication is important to remove heat and
friction.
• Machines should be cleaned after use
• Chips should be removed using brush.
• T-slots, grooves, spindles sleeves, belts, pulley
should be cleaned.
• Machines should be lightly oiled to prevent
from rusting
 Safety Precautions
• Do not support the work piece by hand – use work
holding device.
• Use brush to clean the chip
• No adjustments while the machine is operating
• Ensure for the cutting tools running straight before
starting the operation.
• Never place tools on the drilling table
• Avoid loose clothing and protect the eyes.
• Ease the feed if drill breaks inside the work piece.