ZOO 114

Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

Cracking the Code

What is DNA?
• The genetic material in cells is contained in a
molecule called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA.

• Scientists describe DNA as containing a code. A

code is a set of rules and symbols used to carry
information.

• To understand how DNA functions, you first need

to learn about the structure of the DNA molecule.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

What is the role of DNA and RNA in

building proteins?
• A ribosome is a cell organelle made of ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) and protein.

• As mRNA passes through, transfer RNA (tRNA)

delivers amino acids to the ribosomes.

• The order of the bases codes for which amino acid

is attached.

• The amino acids are joined together to form a

protein.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

How was DNA discovered?

• Many scientists from all over the world contributed
to our understanding of DNA.

• Some scientists discovered the chemicals that

make up DNA, and others learned how these
chemicals fit together.

• Still others determined the three-dimensional

structure of the DNA molecule.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

Unraveling DNA
What does DNA look like?
• Experiments and imaging techniques have helped
scientists to infer the shape of DNA.

• The structure of DNA is a twisted ladder shape

called a double helix.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

What does DNA look like?

• The two sides of the ladder are made of sugars
and phosphate groups.

• The rungs of the ladder are made of pairs of

bases.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

What does DNA look like?

• A base, a sugar, and a phosphate group make a
building block of DNA called a nucleotide.

• There are four different nucleotides in DNA.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

What does DNA look like?

• The bases in nucleotides are paired, or
complementary.

• Adenine always pairs with thymine (A-T).

• Cytosine always pairs with guanine (C-G).

• The order of the nucleotides in DNA is a code that

carries information.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

What does DNA look like?

• Genes are segments of DNA that relate to a
certain trait.

• The code in the nucleotide order has information

about which proteins the cells should build.

• The types of proteins that your body makes help

determine your traits.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

Replication and Mutation

How are copies of DNA made?
• The cell makes copies of DNA molecules through a
process known as replication.

• During replication, the two strands of DNA

separate.

• The bases on each side of the molecule are used

as a pattern for a new strand.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

How are copies of DNA made?

• As bases on the original molecule are exposed,
complementary nucleotides are added.

• When replication is complete, there are two

identical DNA molecules.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

How are copies of DNA made?

• Describe what is happening in the diagram.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

When are copies of DNA made?

• Before a cell divides, it copies its DNA.

• Our cells can replicate DNA in just a few hours,

because replication begins in many places along a
DNA strand.

• Many groups of proteins are working to replicate

your DNA at the same time.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

What are mutations?

• Mutations are changes in the number, type, or
order of bases on a piece of DNA.

• There are three main kinds of mutations:

deletions, insertions, and substitutions.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

What are mutations?

• In a deletion mutation, a base is left out.

• In an insertion mutation, an extra base is added.

• The most common mutation, substitution,

happens when one base replaces another.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

What are mutations?

• Which type of mutation is shown in each row?
(The first row is the original sequence.)

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

What are mutations?

• Mutations can happen by random error, and also
by damage to the DNA molecule by physical or
chemical agents called mutagens.

• Cells make proteins that can fix errors in DNA, but

sometimes the mistake is not corrected.

• The mistake then becomes part of the genetic

code.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

What are mutations?

• A genetic disorder results from mutations that
harm the normal function of the cell.

• Some genetic disorders are inherited, or passed

on from parent to offspring.

• Other disorders result from mutations during a

person’s lifetime. Most cancers fall in this
category.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

Protein Factory
What is the role of DNA and RNA in
building proteins?
• Some of the information in the DNA is copied to a
separate molecule called RNA, or ribonucleic acid.

• RNA is used to build proteins.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

What is the role of DNA and RNA in

building proteins?
• Like DNA, RNA has a sugar-phosphate backbone
and the bases adenine (A), guanine (G), and
cytosine (C).

• Instead of thymine (T), RNA contains uracil (U).

• Three types of RNA have special roles in making

proteins.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

What is the role of DNA and RNA in

building proteins?
• When a cell needs to make a protein, it makes an
RNA copy of a section of the DNA. This is called
transcription.

• In transcription, DNA is used as a template to

make a complementary strand of messenger RNA
(mRNA).

• The information in the mRNA is then used to build

proteins. This is called translation.

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Unit 2 Lesson 6 DNA Structure and Function

What is the role of DNA and RNA in

building proteins?
• In translation, the mRNA passes through a protein
assembly line within a ribosome.

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 Chromosome & Gene

- DNA molecules contain several million nucleotides, while RNA

molecules have only a few thousand.

- DNA is contained in the chromosomes of the nucleus, each

chromosome having a different type of DNA.

- Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), each made up of many

genes.

- A gene is the portion of the DNA molecule responsible for the synthesis
of a single protein (1000 to 2000 nucleotides).
 Difference between DNA & RNA

1. DNA has four bases: A, G, C, and T.

RNA has four bases: A, G, C, and U.

2. In DNA: Sugar is 2-deoxy-D-ribose.

In RNA: Sugar is D-ribose.

3. DNA is almost always double-stranded (helical structure).

RNA is single strand.

4. RNA is much smaller than DNA.

 RNA molecules

Transmits the genetic information needed to operate the cell.

1. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Most abundant RNA – is found in ribosomes: sites for protein synthesis.

2. Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Carries genetic information from DNA (in nucleus) to ribosomes (in cytoplasm)
for protein synthesis. They are produced in “Transcription” from DNA.

3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)

The smallest RNA. Translates the genetic information in mRNA and brings specific
Amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis.
 Functions of DNA

1. It reproduces itself when a cell divides (Replication).

2. It supplied the information to make up RNA, proteins, and enzymes.

 Replication

Separation of the two original strands and synthesis

of two new daughter strands using the original strands as templates.

By breaking H-bonds
 Replication

Replication is bidirectional: takes place at the same speed in both directions.

Replication is semiconservative: each daughter molecule has one parental strand

and one newly synthesized one.

Origin of replication: specific point of DNA where replication begins.

Replication fork: specific point of DNA where replication is proceeding.

Replication occurs at many places simultaneously along the helix.

 Replication

Leading strand: is synthesized continuously in the 5’ → 3’ direction

toward the replication fork.

Lagging strand: is synthesized discontinuously in the 5’ → 3’ direction

away from the replication fork.
 Replication

Replisomes: assemblies of “enzyme factories”.

 Helicases

Unwinds the DNA double helix.

- Replication of DNA starts with unwinding of the double helix.

- Unwinding can occur at either end or in the middle.

- Attach themselves to one DNA strand and cause separation of the double helix.
 Primases

Catalyze the synthesis of primers.

Primers: are short nucleotides (4 to 15).

- They are required to start the synthesis of both daughter strands.

- Primases are placed at about every 50 nucleotides in the lagging strand synthesis.
 DNA Polymerase

It catalyzes the formation of the new strands.

- It joins the nucleoside triphosphates found in the nucleus.

- A new phosphodiester bond is formed between the 5’-phosphate of the

nucleoside triphosphate and the 3’-OH group of the new DNA strand.
 Ligase

In formation of lagging strand, small fragments (Okazaki) are join together by

ligase enzyme.
 Protein Synthesis

Gene expression: activation of a gene to produce a specific protein.

Only a small fraction (1-2%) of the DNA in a chromosome contains genes.

Base sequence of the gene carries the information

to produce one protein molecule.

Change of sequence New protein

 Gene expression

Transcription: synthesis of mRNA (messenger RNA)

Translation

Reverse transcription
 Transcription

Genetic information is copied from a gene in DNA to make a mRNA.

Begins when the section of a DNA that contains the gene to be copied unwinds.

Polymerase enzyme identifies a starting point to begin mRNA synthesis.

 Transcription

The DNA splits into two strands:

Template strand: it is used to synthesize RNA.

Coding Strand (Informational strand): it is not used to synthesize RNA.

- Transcription proceeds from the 3’ end to the 5’ end of the template.

(informational strand, non-template strand)

Direction of transcription

- When mRNA is released, the double helix of the DNA re-forms.

 Transcription

C is paired with G, T pairs with A

But A pairs with U (not T).

Polymerase enzyme moves along the unwound DNA,

forming bonds between the bases.

RNA Polymerase

Section of bases on DNA (template strand): -G–A–A–C–T-

Complementary base sequence in mRNA: -C–U–U–G–A-

 Transcription

Sample Problem 22.6

From the template strand of DNA below, write out the mRNA and
informational strand of DNA sequences:

Template strand: 3’—C T A G G A T A C—5’

mRNA: 5’—G A U C C U A U G—3’

Informational 5’—G A T C C T A T G—3’

strand:
 Translation

mRNA (as a carrier molecule) moves out of the nucleus and goes to ribosomes.

tRNA converts the information into amino acids.

Amino acids are placed in the proper sequence.

Proteins are synthesized.

 Gene expression

Overall function of RAN’s in the cell: facilitate the task of synthesizing protein.
 Genetic code

Genetic code: language that relates the series of nucletides in mRNA

to the amino acids specified.

• The sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA determines the amino

acid order for the protein.

• Every three bases (triplet) along the mRNA makes up a codon.

• Each codon specifies a particular amino acid.

Genetic code
 Genetic code

• 64 condons are possible from the triplet combination of A, G, C, and U.

•Codons are written from the 5’ end to the 3’ end of the mRNA molecule

• UGA, UAA, and UAG, are stop signals.

(code for termination of protein synthesis).

• AUG has two roles:

1. Signals the start of the proteins synthesis (at the beginning of an mRNA).
 tRNA (transfer RNA)

tRNA translates the codons into specific amino acids. Serine

- It contains 70-90 nucleotides.

- The 3’ end, called the acceptor stem and

always has the nucleotide ACC and a free
OH group that binds a specific amino acid.

- Anticodon: a sequence of three

nucleotides at the bottom of tRNA, which
is complementary to three bases in an mRNA
and it can identify the needed amino acid.
Anticodon loop
A
G U

Codon on mRNA U C A
Transcription
Translation
 Protein synthesis

• mRNA attaches to smaller subunit of a ribosome.

• tRNA molecules bring specific amino acids to the mRNA.

• Peptide bonds form between an amino acid and the end of the growing
peptide chain.

• The ribosome moves along mRNA until the end of the codon (translocation).

• The polypeptide chain is released from the ribosome and becomes an active
protein.

Sometimes several ribosomes (polysome) translate the same strand of mRNA

at the same time to produce several peptide chains.
 Termination

Ribosome encounters a stop condon.

No tRNA to complement the termination codon.

An enzyme releases the complete polypeptide chain from the ribosome.

Amino acids form the three-dimensional structure (active protein).

 Translation
There are 3 stages in translation:

1. Initiation begins with mRNA

binding to the ribosome.

2. Elongation proceeds as the next

tRNA molecule delivers the next
amino acid, and a peptide bond
forms between the two amino acids.
 Translation

3. Termination: Translation continues until a stop codon

(UAA, UAG, or UGA) is reached and the completed
protein is released.

Often the first amino acid (methionine) is not needed

and it is removed after protein synthesis is complete.
 Mutation

A heritable change in DNA nucleotide sequence.

It changes the sequence of amino acids (structure and function of proteins).

Enzyme cannot catalyze.

X rays, Overexpose to sun (UV light), Chemicals (mutagens), or Viruses

However, some mutations are random events.