Module 4

Construction Methods
Topics
Horizontal Systems – Hand- set slab forms, Table forms,
Vertical Systems – Wall forms, Column forms,
Combined Horizontal and Vertical Systems
Tunnel Form Systems, Trench Safety.
Cost effective construction methods - Prestressed concrete construction -
3D printing.
Precast Flat Panel System- 3D Volumetric Construction-Flat Slabs-Hybrid
Concrete Construction-Precast Foundations-Insulating Concrete
Formwork
Soil stabilisation methods
 Formwork

● It is a temporary construction that

serves as a mould for pouring
concrete.
● It is a vertical or horizontal shape
used to preserve concrete in place as
it grows strength and form.
FORMWORK
● Formwork accounts for 30-70% of the construction cost for concrete framed
buildings.
● Construction companies procure forming systems by either purchase and
short term rentals.
TYPICAL COMPONENTS OF SLAB FORMWORK
The beam formwork
Consists of a three-side box which is supported by column forms or cross members called head
trees.
Formwork for Columns

● Column form work may be out of timber,

steel or fiber-board.
● The four sides of the Box are held in position
by the use of wooden Blocks, bolts and
yokes.
● A wash of water should be given to the inside
of the formwork just before starting the
placing of concrete.
FORMING SYSTEMS
● Classified into two types:
○ Conventional formwork
○ Industrialized forms
 Feature Conventional formwork Industrialized formwork
TYPOLOGY Temporary structure Construction equipment

MATERIAL Traditionally wood,but may be steel or Mainly steel or aluminum

aluminum
WEIGHT Not more than 45 kg per element In the range 2-10 kg

HANDLING Manual By crane

NO.OF USE Single (depending material) Multiple

COST Low production cost but high cost per High initial fabrication cost but low
use cost per use
Site labour input Hign Low
 FORMWORKS

● HORIZONTAL SYSTEM

● VERTICAL SYSTEM
HORIZONTAL SYSTEMS
Common forming systems for slabs typically come in two configurations:
Hand-set forms
Table (flying forms)
Hand-set forms

● also known as traditional or conventional forms

● often made of wood or plywood
● suitable for projects where the formwork needs to be customized on-site.
● Handset forms are manually assembled, requiring labor to put together the
formwork on-site.
● They offer flexibility and adaptability, making them suitable for various
shapes and sizes of structures.
● often employed for smaller to medium-sized construction projects
● Since assembly and dismantling are manual processes, handset forms can be
more labor-intensive compared to modern formwork systems.
Table forms
● It comprises sheathing, joists, stringers and vertical shoring all in one piece.

● The entire unit craned from one casting location to the next easily.
 type of formwork system that consists of a large horizontal
table-like structure supported by vertical legs or props.
 This system is particularly efficient for the construction of large,
horizontal slabs such as those found in floors and roofs.
 The primary feature is the horizontal table that supports the
weight of the concrete slab during casting and curing.
 Table forms have a significant surface area, allowing for the
efficient casting of large slabs in a single pour.
 Many table form systems include safety features, such as
guardrails and safety nets, providing a safer working
environment for construction workers.
 Some table forms incorporate mechanized or hydraulic systems
for lifting and moving, making them more efficient and reducing
manual labor.
 Table forms enable the rapid construction of large horizontal
slabs, improving overall project efficiency.
 Most of the table form systems are designed for multiple uses,
contributing to cost-effectiveness on projects with similar slab
requirements.
 Two basic table systems
1. Joist and stringer systems (commonly two single or double stringers)

○ Supported by single post shores or

by shoring towers
○ The joists and stringers are either
made of the same material
○ Commonly all steel elements or
timber elements or the joists are
timber while the stringers are
made of steel.
2. Truss systems
● In which vertical shoring is
provided by trusses- two per
table.
● These serve as stringers.
● The trusses and joist are either
all aluminum or all steel.
● Adjustable legs and screw jacks
under the trusses are used to
achieve the full table height.
 VERTICAL SYSTEMS
● Major concerns are

1.Lateral pressure of the fresh concrete on the forms

2.Overall stability of the entire forming system

3.Accessibility of workers to the top of the formwork

WALL FORMS
1. HAND-SET FORMS
2. GANGED FORMS
3. LARGE PANEL FORMS
4. LARGE CUSTOM MADE FORMS
HAND SET FORMS
● These are small panel modular forms that can be used without crane
lifting assistance.
● The panel is composed of sheathing connected permanently to a
protecting frame and cross beams.
GANGED FORMS
● Hand -set forms or larger panels that are ganged together.
● Additional beams (wales) to form one rigid large size panel that is used
as a full, crane lifted industrialized form.
GANGED FORMS
 LARGE PANEL FORMS
● These are all steel forms prefabricated as large units whose parts
are all welded together.
● The crane lifted form

LARGE CUSTOM MADE FORMS

● These are made to measure large size forms composed of standard
elements to fit the specific needs of a given project.
● They are built on site
COLUMN FORMWORK
● Concrete formwork is a mold made of steel, aluminum, timber, plastic, or other
materials in which wet concrete is poured to achieve a desired shape and size.
● Once the concrete sets, formwork is removed.
● Column formwork may either be box-shaped or round.
● In order to help facilitate quality control during the pouring stage of using
column formwork, clamps, which are horizontal and made of either steel or
timber are often used.
● Column formwork’s head is frequently employed to support beam formwork,
or column formwork is cast to the bottom side of beams.
● The use of column formwork in conjunction with beam formwork allows for
quick and precise construction.
● Two of the major benefits of using column formwork include that it is quick
and simple to assemble and that it reduces the amount of labor and equipment
needed to successfully produce uniform and strong vertical concrete shapes of
desired dimensions.
Column forms
Speciality of column forms are:-
● A great variety of shapes and dimensions.
● High repetitiveness with relatively large forming area.
● Higher ratio of forming contact area to concrete volume in columns.
 Standard column forms
The form is made of four panels that can be combined in an
overlapping pattern to achieve the required size.
These are commonly all steel forms or steel or aluminum frames
onto which replaceable plywood sheets are connected.
Custom made column forms
● Factory -fabricated steel forms
● Site fabricated timber forms
Combined Horizontal and Vertical Systems -
Tunnel Form Systems, Trench Safety.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y3SfltCFOlY
Combined Horizontal and Vertical Systems – tunnel form systems

● Integrated approach to construction formwork that allows for the

simultaneous shaping of both horizontal and vertical structural
elements.
● This system is designed to enhance efficiency, reduce labor
requirements, and ensure precision in the construction process.
● It is used to form walls and slabs that are concreted in one operation.
● It is suitable for repetitive use as high rise housing project
Components of the System

1. Horizontal Formwork: This involves the molds or structures used to

shape horizontal elements such as slabs and beams. The formwork is
typically supported by falsework or temporary supports.
2. Vertical Formwork: This includes the molds or structures used for
shaping vertical elements such as columns and walls. Vertical formwork
provides the necessary support for concrete to maintain the desired shape.
3. Connecting Systems: To achieve a combined system, there are
connecting systems that seamlessly integrate horizontal and vertical
formwork. These connections ensure stability and alignment between the
different formwork elements.
 Construction Process
1. Planning and Design: The combined formwork system requires careful planning and
design to ensure that the same components can be efficiently used for both horizontal
and vertical elements.
2. Placement: The formwork components are placed according to the design
specifications and in the designated positions for both horizontal and vertical
construction. Proper alignment is crucial during this stage.
3. Concrete Pouring: Once the formwork is securely in place, concrete is poured
simultaneously for both horizontal and vertical elements.
4. Curing: The concrete is allowed to cure to gain the required strength. This stage is
critical for the durability of the structure.
5. Stripping: After the concrete has sufficiently cured, the formwork is removed,
revealing the finished horizontal and vertical elements.
Advantages of Combined System
 Reduces the construction timeline, making the overall process more
efficient.
 Optimize material usage, ensuring that the same formwork components can
be utilized for both horizontal and vertical elements.
 By streamlining the construction process and reducing the need for separate
formwork systems, costs of labor and materials can be minimized.
 Better alignment and coordination between horizontal and vertical elements,
leads to more precise construction outcomes.
 With a unified formwork system, the construction site becomes more
organized, reducing the risk of accidents and improving overall safety.
Tunnel Formwork

• Tunnel formwork come in half units and in the form of an inverted “L”
which are bolted together at the top to form each tunnel.
• The inbuilt wheels and the jacks help the formwork move in and out of the
position and adjusted to the final height.
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_j-FRe8Ay9s
Tunnel Form Systems
The Casting Process of Tunnel Formwork

1) Stage One: Prefabricated Wall reinforcement is placed by crane along the entire wing
prior to casting the kickers (used to position wall formwork).
2) Stage Two: Two and a half tunnel is craned into place, bolted together and ties are added.
3) Stage Three: The wall concrete is poured
4.Stage Four: The slab reinforcements are fixed
5) Stage 5: The slab concrete is placed. The formwork system provides for a pour to be wrapped in tarpaulins and for the use of butane
heaters to maintain a sufficiently high temperature for the concrete to reach its striking strength overnight.
6) Stage 6: The tunnel-forms are removed next day.
7) Stage 7: The process is repeated for the next two bays.

Tunnel form can produce strong and durable in-situ cellular structures. This method of
construction can achieve time savings up to 25% with cost savings of 15%. Since the
concrete finish is very good, the requirement for post construction trades such as
plasterers and electricians are greatly reduced.
 Trench safety

Page no.747
 Definitions

• Excavation – a man-made cut, cavity, trench or depression formed by earth

removal.
• Trench – a narrow excavation. The depth is greater than the width, but not
wider than 15 feet.
• Shield - A structure able to withstand a cave-in and protect employees (also
called box).
• Shoring - A structure that supports the sides of an excavation and protects
against cave-ins.
• Sloping - A technique that employs a specific angle of incline on the sides of
the excavation.
44
TRENCH SHIELDING
TRENCH SHORING
 Injury and Death

• Excavating is one of the most hazardous construction

operations
• Most accidents occur in trenches 5-15 feet deep
• There is usually no warning before a cave-in

47
 Cave-in Hazard

Inadequate protective system

This excavation has inadequate support

posts and access.

48
Inadequate Protective System

This worker is in a trench, with no protective system.

49
 Factors Involved in Designing a Protective System

• Soil classification
• Depth of cut
• Water content of soil
• Changes due to weather and climate
• Other operations in the vicinity

50
Hazards of excavation work
• Cave-ins
• Accidental severing of • Asphyxiation
underground utility lines. • Explosions
• Fire • Falls
• Materials/ • Electrocutions
equipment falling into
excavation sites • Drowning
• Inhalation of toxic materials
precautions to be taken in any excavation, shaft, earthworks,
underground works or tunnel

(a) Suitable shoring to guard against danger to workers from a fall or

dislodgement of earth, rock or other material;
(b) Guard against dangers arising from the fall of persons, materials or objects
or the inrush of water into the excavation, shaft, earthworks, underground
works or tunnel;
(c) Secure adequate ventilation at every workplace so as to maintain an
atmosphere fit for respiration and to limit any fumes, gases, vapours, dust or
other impurities to levels which are not dangerous or injurious to health and
are within limits laid down by national laws or regulations;
(d) Enable the workers to reach safety in the event of fire, or an inrush of water
or material;
(e) Avoid risk to workers arising from possible underground dangers such as the
circulation of fluids or the presence of pockets of gas, by undertaking
appropriate investigations to locate them.
52
Excavation - precautions
• Before digging begins on site:
a) All excavation work should be planned and the method of excavation
and the type of support work required decided;
b) the stability of the ground should be verified by a competent person;
c) A competent person should check that the excavation will not affect
adjoining buildings, structures or roadways;
d) The employer should verify the position of all the public utilities such
as underground sewers, gas pipes, water pipes and electrical
conductors that may cause danger during work;
e) If necessary to prevent danger, the gas, water, electrical and other
public utilities should be shut off or disconnected;
f) If underground pipes, cable conductors, etc., Cannot be removed or
disconnected, they should be fenced, hung up and adequately
marked or otherwise protected;
53
Excavation – precautions contd..
(g) The position of bridges, temporary roads and spoil heaps should be
determined;
(h) If necessary to prevent danger, land should be cleared of trees,
boulders and other obstructions;
(i) The employer should see that the land to be excavated is not
contaminated by harmful chemicals or gases, or by any hazardous
waste material such as asbestos.

54
Cost effective construction methods

Prestressed concrete construction

3D printing.
Prestressed concrete construction

● Pre-stressed concrete is a form of concrete where initial

compression is given in the concrete before applying the
external load so that stress from external loads is counteracted
in the desired way during the service period.
● This initial compression is introduced by high-strength steel
wire or alloys (called ‘tendons’) located in the concrete section.
Why is Prestressed Concrete Required?

● concrete is good at compression but very weak in tension.

● after external loading, in the bottom part of the concrete, a tension zone
occurs.
● So, it tries to be elongated, and form cracks.
● This is why we add steel bars at the bottom section so that it can resist most of
the tension and save concrete from cracking. This is our traditional
RC structure.
● But what about some megastructures with larger beam spans?
● In the way of a traditional RC structure, for these larger beam spans, we
should provide a larger depth which is often too much that, for a bridge over a
river, there will be not enough space under the bridge for ships to pass it.
● Here comes this new concept--- Pre-stressed concrete.
Why cost effective ?
● Reduction in Structural Depth:
● The introduction of pre-stressing forces allows for a reduction in the overall depth of
structural elements. This benefit is particularly advantageous in buildings or structures with
space constraints, as it maximizes usable floor space while maintaining structural integrity.
● Crack Control and Durability:
● Prestressed concrete minimizes the occurrence and width of cracks, especially in areas
subjected to high tensile stresses. By applying compressive stresses, prestressed concrete
increases the resistance to shrinkage, temperature changes, and long-term creep, thus
enhancing the durability and longevity of the structure.
● Efficient Material Usage:
● Prestressed concrete optimizes the use of construction materials. The high strength of
prestressed concrete allows for the reduction in the cross-sectional area of structural
members, resulting in efficient material utilization and potential cost savings.
● Resistance to Dynamic Loads:
● Pre-stressed concrete exhibits superior resistance to dynamic loads, such as those
experienced during earthquakes or heavy vibrations. The pre-compression in the concrete
helps to counteract the effects of external forces, improving the structural response and
Cost effective construction methods

Prestressed concrete construction

 3D printing
3D printing (sometimes referred to as Additive Manufacturing (AM))
is the computer-controlled sequential layering of materials to create
three-dimensional shapes.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vL2KoMNzGTo
3D printing
1. Main areas of use:
a. Prototyping
b. Specialized parts – aerospace,
military, biomedical
engineering,
c. Dental, Hobbies and home use
d. Future applications– medical
(body parts), buildings and cars
● 3D Printing uses software that slices the 3D model into layers (0.01mm thick or
less in most cases).
● Each layer is then traced onto the build plate by the printer, once the pattern is
completed, the build plate is lowered and the next layer is added on top of the
previous one.
Operation
● In practice, concrete is squeezed out of a nozzle attached to a computer-
programmed robotic arm.
● The arm is either stationary or travelling along rails.
● In successive strips, layer upon layer, to produce the desired building
structure, such as an exterior or interior wall, or component, like an
archway or void.
Types of 3D Printing:

a. FDM – Fused Deposition Modeling

● FDM works on an "additive" principle by laying down material in layers.
● A plastic filament or metal wire is unwound from a coil and supplies material to an
extrusion nozzle which can turn the flow on and off.
● The nozzle is heated to melt the material and can be moved in both horizontal and
vertical directions by a numerically controlled mechanism.
● It is directly controlled by a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software
package.
FDM – Fused Deposition Modeling

● The model or part is produced by extruding small beads of thermoplastic

material to form layers as the material hardens immediately after
extrusion from the nozzle.
● Stepper motors or servo motors are typically employed to move the
extrusion head.
b. SLA – Stereolithography

● It is an additive manufacturing process which employs a vat of liquid ultraviolet curable photopolymer "resin" and an ultraviolet laser to build parts' layers one at a time.
● For each layer, the laser beam traces a cross-section of the part pattern on the surface of the liquid resin.
● Exposure to the ultraviolet laser light cures and solidifies the pattern traced on the resin and joins it to the layer below.
Stereolithography
C. SLS - Selective laser sintering
● It is an additive manufacturing technique that uses a high power laser (for example, a
carbon dioxide laser) to fuse small particles of plastic, metal (direct metal laser
sintering), ceramic, or glass powders into a mass that has a desired three-dimensional
shape.
● The laser selectively fuses powdered material by scanning cross-sections generated
from a 3-D digital description of the part (for example from a CAD file or scan data) on
the surface of a powder bed.
● After each cross-section is scanned, the powder bed is lowered by one layer thickness,
a new layer of material is applied on top, and the process is repeated until the part is
completed.
BENEFITS OF 3D PRINTING IN CONSTRUCTION
● Consumption of material is optimized
● Increases the ability to design a larger variety of customized homes and
buildings
● Greater degree of design freedom, able to produce geometries (curves,
hollowness, etc.) traditional concrete molding can’t
● The construction waste is saved (Less waste, no need for large-scale
concrete molds or formwork)
● Huge save in labour cost (Lower need for labour)
● Higher productivity (it can print 24/7)
● Faster construction
● Quality can be maintained
DISADVANTAGES

● Reduced employee number in the construction industry as machine does most

of the work.
● A finite number of materials can be used since the printer cannot be able to
print the required design in various materials.
● Transportation of printers on job site becomes risky.
● Any errors occur in a digital model can result in an uncertain situation on site
during the printing or construction phase.
CHALLENGES OF 3D PRINTING
● High initial investment cost (printers and related tech)
● Limitations in print size (mostly vertically)
● Limited selection of materials
● High technical expertise required to operate and
maintain printers
● Surface finish of printed elements can be visually
unappealing
● Building code hurdles
 Precast Flat Panel Construction

● construction technique that provides an alternative to traditional site-based construction.

● Precast flat panel system components are mass produced off-site, making them practical for

recurring requirements that also demand speed of manufacturing and consistency of product.
● Panels can include elements, such as doors, windows and floor units.
● They can also include features such as decorative wall finishes, fitted insulation and so on.
● Some types can be used as load bearing panels in cross wall construction applications.

● Precast flat panel systems can reduce on-site waste and ongoing maintenance, but they can be

difficult to transport and handle.

● Using the precast flat panel construction technique may shorten construction project completion

times.
● The most common types of panels are:
1. Open panels
2. Closed panels
3. Concrete panels
4. Infill panels
5. Curtain walling
6. Composite panels
7. Structural insulated panels (SIPS)
3D volumetric construction- the new way of construction

● an alternative to the current construction condition which promises transformed improvements of Cost,

Time, Quality, Safety and Health. It offers predicting uniformity.

● Eliminating problems faced in local construction, it employs very few numbers of qualified human

labour, henceforth reduces chances of error.

● Also known as modular construction- this construction technique involves production of three-

dimensional modular units in controlled factory conditions.

● These modules can then be brought on site and then assembled together.
● This unique method of construction offers the inherent benefits of concrete such as thermal mass, sound

and fire resistance, as well as factory quality and accuracy, together with speed of erection on-site.
● It offers schedule benefits as most of the activities are undertaken away from the building site with

minimal work at the building site.

Key Advantages of 3D volumetric construction

1. Superior quality through factory-based quality control

2. Improved site productivity
3. Reduces wastage
4. Great reliability and quality – since no, or minimal vertical joints
5. Great certainty of completion on time and on budget
Flat slab
● In a conventional building, the columns and beams support the slab.
● The flat slab method eliminates the need for beams by directly supporting the slab
with columns.
● Because of its practicality, versatility in interior design, and ease of building, a
flat slab is a popular option for constructing asymmetrical column layouts.
● Flat slab - slab of reinforced concrete that firmly rests on columns.
● The behaviour of a flat slab is the same as that of a two-way slab, with its thickness
generally being greater than the thickness of the concrete surface in a beam-slab
system.
● Flat slabs must be at least 125 mm thick to comply with the requirements of IS
456:2000.