COURSE OUTLINE

Sub-Enabling outcomes
4.5.1 Classify microorganisms according to
their characteristics and importance.
4.5.2 Describe the pathogenicity of major
human and plant diseases caused by
microorganisms.
4.5.3 Carry out sterilization procedure and
observe safety precautions in handling
microbiology specimens in the laboratory.

PREPARED BY DOCTOR MWAKOSYA J

Course suggested Text Books
Required reference
[1] Madigan, M and Parker, M. (2007). “Biology of
Microorganisms” Prentice Hall,
Recommended references
[2] Gerard J. Tortora, B. R. Funke, C. L. (2012).
Microbiology: An Introduction, 11th Edition : Benjamin
Cummings.
[3] Cowan M. K. (2014). Microbiology: A Systems
Approach 4th Edition: McGraw-Hill
[4] Berg, L. and Martin C (2014). Biology. Brooks Cole.
[5] Boyer R. F. (2011). Biochemistry Laboratory:
Modern Theory andBY
PREPARED Techniques.
DOCTOR 2nd Edition, Pearson.
MWAKOSYA J
 COURSE ASSESSMENT
• Course work 60%
• Final examination 40%
PART A : Course work 60%
• Test 1: 7th week it will contain 15 marks
• Individual assignment 9th week it will contain 10
marks
• Group work assignment 13rd week it will contain 5
marks
• Test 2 : 10th week it will contain 15 marks
• Test 3 : 14th week it will contain 15 marks
PART B: Final examination 40%
TOTAL 100
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INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY
The term microbiology was introduced by a Louis
Pasteur(1822 – 1895)
He is known as father of microbiology
Microbiology, derived its name from three Greek
words: mikros (“small”), bios (“life”), and logos
(“science”)
Microbiology is the study of living organisms of
microscopic size
OR Microbiology is the study of organisms or agents
too small to be seen with naked eyes
 These microorganism cannot be seen by naked eyes,
theyPREPARED BYunder
are only seen DOCTOR MWAKOSYA J
the microscope
 Microorganisms are present everywhere on earth,
including human beings, animals, plants, soil, water,
food and atmosphere
EXAMPLES OF MICROORGANISMS
Trypanosome
Amoeba
Salmonella typhi
Vibrio cholerae
Plasmodium (Plasmodium vivax , Plasmodium
falciparum, Plasmodium malariae , Plasmodium
ovale)
HIVPREPARED BY DOCTOR MWAKOSYA J
CLASSIFICATION OF MICROORGANISM
Microorganisms are classified into the
following groups
1. BACTERIA
2. FUNGI
3. ALGAE
4. PROTOZOA
5. VIRUSES

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1. BACTERIA
CHARACTERISTICS OF BACTERIA
1. All are microscopic
2. All are unicellular
3. All are prokaryotic -their genetic material
(DNA) is not organized into a well defined
nucleus
4. Cells lack many organelles found in the
eukaryotic cells
5. Reproduction is asexual by fission or
fragmentation
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Prokaryotes (Greek pro, before, and karyon, nut
or kernel; organisms with a primordial nucleus)
Eukaryotes (Greek eu, true, and karyon, nut or
kernel)
Three basic shapes of bacteria
Rod shaped (bacillus)
 Spherical (coccus)
 Curved: these range from comma-shaped
(vibrio) to corkscrew-shaped (spirochaete)

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PREPARED BY DOCTOR MWAKOSYA J
GROWTH CURVE OF BACTERIA
When bacteria are inoculated into a new
culture media, it shows a characteristic growth
curve which has four phases:
1- Lag phase:
During this phase, the growth rate is slow
because the bacteria are preparing for
synthesis of DNA, various enzymes, and other
components, which are for cell division.

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2- Logarithmic(exponential) phase:
During this period the cells divide steadily at
a constant rate.
The growth rate is maximal during this phase
because of availability of DNA, various
enzymes, and other components

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3- Stationary phase:
During this phase the growth rate is equal to
the death rate of the cell because food begins
to run out, poisonous waste products
accumulate, PH changes, hydrogen acceptors
are used up, and energy transfers are
diminished.
The rate of fission begins to decline, and the
organisms die in increasing numbers.
4- Death (decline) phase:
 the growth rate become low because viable
bacterial cells begins
PREPARED to decline,
BY DOCTOR MWAKOSYA J
PREPARED BY DOCTOR MWAKOSYA J
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA
1. Used for decomposition died organic matters
and release nutrients
2. Bacteria decompose pollutants in the sewage
system and render them harmless
3. Some bacteria which live in the soil are
nitrogen fixing bacteria
4. Some produce flavours in sour milk, cheese
and butter
5. Some bacteria produce medicine such as
streptomycin
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6. Vitamin synthesis
Escherichia coli that lives in the human large intestine
synthesize vitamin B and releases it for human use
7. Digestion
Some bacteria living in the gut of cattle, horses and other
herbivores secrete cellulase, an enzyme that helps in the
digestion of the cellulose contents of plant cell walls
8. Produce oxygen
Some bacteria produce oxygen (autotrophic bacteria)
which is very important for respiration process
9. In genetic engineering
Bacteria are used in production of insulin and human
growth hormone
DISADVANTAGES OF BACTERIA
1. Bacteria cause infections and diseases to the
animals e.g tuberculosis, meningitis, gonorrhea,
typhoid, chlamydia
2. Bacteria causes disease to the plants which
cause lower production to the farmers
3. Bacteria causes food to decay and spoil
4. Denitrifying bacteria in the soil convert
nitrates to nitrogen; this reduces the nutrients
available for plants

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2.VIRUSES
CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUSES
1.They have spikes, which helps them to attach
to the host cell.
2. They are non cellular.
3. They do not respire, do not metabolize and
do not grow, but they do reproduce.
4.They contain a protein coat called the capsid.
5.They have a nucleic acid core containing
DNA or RNA.
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6. Ribosomes and enzymes are absent, which
are needed for metabolism.
7.They are considered both as living and
nonliving things, as viruses are inactive when
they are present outside of host cells and are
active in side of host cells

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a) Features of Virus as living things
A virus is considered as a living due to the
following reasons.
Have either DNA or RNA but not both
Is able to direct its hosts to produce new viral
particles
The virus is capable of entering and infecting
its host
Have ability to undergo mutation like any
other living organism
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(b) Features of Virus as Non Living things
A virus is not considering as a living due to the
following reasons.
They can crystallize
They lack cell structure and organelles
They neither grow nor replicate on their own
Structure of virus

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ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF VIRUSES
1. Bacteriophage is virus used to attack
bacteria, therefore used to control bacterial
infections and diseases
2. Some viruses used to make a vaccine
3. They are used in scientific studies/research
Example molecular biology

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DISADVANTAGES OF VIRUSES
1. Viruses are pathogens, they causes disease
and infections to the human such as AIDS,
Influenza
2. Viruses cause a large number of plant
diseases for example: Tobacco Mosaic virus,
that attack tobacco, potatoes etc.
2. They can reproduce very fast, leading to
large scale epidemics
3. Viruses can alter themselves often and thus
become very difficult to destroy
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3.FUNGI
CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI
 Eukaryotic
 Unicellular
 They store glycogen like animal
Their cell walls contain chitin
There is no organization into root and shoot
system

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Examples of fungi

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ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI
1.Destruction of organic waste
Saprophytic Fungi decompose plant and animal remains by
acting as natural scavengers. Carbon dioxide released in the
process is used by green plants.
2. Production of acids
Many fungi are used in the commercial preparation of many
organic acids such as citric acid, gallic acid, gluconic acid and
lactic acid.
3. Vitamin preparation
Some fungi as used in preparation of vitamin examples Yeasts
are also rich in vitamin B.
4. Used as food
Many fungi like a mushroom are edible
 PREPARED BY DOCTOR MWAKOSYA J
5. Production of Medicines or Medicinal
value
 Some fungi is used in production of certain
antibiotic drugs e.g Penicillinused to kill
bacteria
6. Production of Phytohormone or Auxins
 Many growth promoting substances like
Gibberellins is synthesized from the fungi like
Fusarium maniforma and Dematium
pullulans.
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7. Genetics
Some fungi such as neurospora are used in
the study of genetics

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DISADVANTAGES OF FUNGI
1) Many fungi cause very much loss of our
timber trees by causing wood rot.
(2) Some would fungi like Rhizopus, Mucor,
Aspergillus spoil our food.
(3) Some parasitic fungi are causative agents of
diseases of our crops, fruits and other economic
plants
4. Some fungi are also causing some important
diseases in human beings
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4. PROTOZOA
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROTOZOA
1. Eukaryotic
2. Unicellular
3. Reproduction asexual or sexual
4. Food for aquatic animals
Examples of protozoa

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BENEFICIAL OF PROTOZOA
The protozoa are useful in the following ways:
i. Food:
Protozoa provide food for insect larvae, crustaceans
and worms
ii. Symbiotic Protozoa:
Certain protozoa like Trichonympha and
Colonymphya etc. live in the gut of termite, which
help in the digestion of cellulose. The digested
cellulose is utilized by the host

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iii. Insect Control:
Several protozoa control harmful insects by
persisting their bodies.
iv. Helpful in Sanitation:
A large number of protozoa living in polluted
water feed upon waste organic matters and
thus purify it. Many protozoa feed upon
bacteria and play important role in the sanitary
betterment and keeping water safe for
drinking
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v. Industry:
The skeletal deposits of marine protozoa have
many uses. Some are employed as filtering
agents, others are made into chalk
vi. Building Material:
The skeletal deposits due course of time
change into the limestone rock. limestone-
beds are used as building material.

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vii. Oil Exploration:
Petroleum is organic origin
 The skeletal deposit of protozoan often
found in association with oil deposits
 In this mean; they help in the exact location
of oil.
viii. Scientific Study:
Many protozoa are used in biological and
medical researches.
The effects of various foods and poison have
beenPREPARED
investigated on frromMWAKOSYA
BY DOCTOR protozoan. J
HARMFUL PROTOZOA
The protozoa are harmful in following ways:
i. Pollution of Water:
Drinking water in natural condition is made
unpalatable by the reproduction of some free-
living protozoa in it.
ii. Destruction of Animals of Food Value:
when become abundant, are responsible for
turning the ocean red. The water becomes foul
and cause toxic reaction to molluscs and they
become unfit for eating by human beings
iii. Destruction of Wooden Articles:
Some protozoa indirectly help in distraction
of wooden articles and books.
iv. Reduction in Fertility of Soil:
It has been observed that about 200- 300
species of protozoa are present in soil. These
protozoa feed on nitrogen-fixing bacteria thus
reduce the fertility of soil.

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v. Parasitic Protozoa:
Parasitism is an association of two organisms
in which one organism lives at the expense of
the other giving nothing in return.
The first animal is called parasite and other
the host
Some protozoa are parasite

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5.ALGAE
CHARACTERISTICS OF ALGAE
1. Eukaryotic
2, Unicellular or Multicellular
3. Photosynthetic
4. Most occur in aquatic environments
5.Reproduction asexual or Sexual Practical
significance:

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Write any ten uses of microorganisms
Ten uses of microorganisms are as follows:
Microorganisms help in the preparation of curd,
bread, cake etc.
They are used in the production of alcohol on a
huge scale.
Yeast is used to make vinegar.
Microbes are used to reduce pollution.
They act as cleaning agents and decay the waste
products into compost.
They decompose the plant and animal dead
PREPARED
bodies and reduceBY the
DOCTOR
waste.MWAKOSYA J
 Write any ten uses of microorganisms

1.Some microbes carry out a process called

decomposition or decay.
• They break down dead plants, animals and waste into
harmless products.
• The microbes find some of the products useful. Some
products go back into the surrounding environment.

Bacteria
decomposers
Fungi

40
Compost heaps

Do you know what biodegradable

means?

41
4
1
 2. Sewage
• Bacteria are used in sewage
works to break down the
sewage liquid before it is put
into rivers and the sea
• Some of these bacteria
produce the gas methane
while they are doing this
• Methane can be used to make
electricity or as a fuel for
cooking

42
4
2
 3. Food
• Cheese and yoghurt
– Fermentation by special bacteria called
lactobacillus produces yoghurt and cheese.
– Blue cheese is blue because it is mouldy! Types
of fungi are added into the cheese to make the
blue veins.

+ =
Bacteria
Milk lactobacillus

43
 Food
• In bread-making the dough rises because of the fungus
yeast.
• Yeast makes a gas which helps the dough to rise.
• Beer, wine and spirits are also made with the help of
yeast - yeast uses up the sugar and makes alcohol and a
gas

45
4
5
 4.used to make QUORN
• A typeof fungus is used to make
QUORN. The fungi are grown in
large chambers; collected and
compressed together to form
blocks which can then be
flavoured. It is a healthy
alternative to meat as it is high in
protein but very low in fat and, as
it is made from microbes and not
animals, it is suitable for
vegetarians.

46
 5.Medicine
• Penicillin
– Produced by a fungus
– One of the most commonly
used antibiotics today.
– There are many others
made by fungi or bacteria
which stop the growth of
certain bacteria.
6. Vaccines
– Usually made from weak or
inactive versions of the
same microbes that make
us ill
47
 7.Fuels
•In some countries such as
Brazil, rather than import
petrol which is very
expensive, sugar cane is
grown and fermented with
yeast to make alcohol. This is
then used in cars etc instead of
petrol. In this country around
10% of the petrol or diesel
contains alcohol made from
plants.

48
8.They increase soil fertility by fixing nitrogen
in the atmosphere..
9.They are used as preservatives for food items
10.They help in various metabolic activities in
our body.

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1. Baking - the carbon dioxide released in
respiration makes the bread rise

1 2 3

4 5 6

The alcohol evaporates off in the oven.

 Beer & Wine making
2. Brewing
The alcohol is made when
the yeast use sugar from
barley
3. Wine making

The carbon dioxide is allowed to escape as a

waste product.
Why are some microorganisms considered as
harmful?
Ans: Some species of bacteria, viruses cause
diseases in human beings, plants and animals
 Some bacteria cause tuberculosis and
typhoid, some kinds of virus cause common
cold and influenza.
Some microorganisms also cause
decomposition of food
 Thus this kind of microorganisms are
considered as harmful
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Short Answer Questions
1. Name the five groups of microorganisms.
Ans: Five groups of microorganisms are
bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae and virus.
2. Name any two serious diseases caused by
virus.
Ans: Polio and chickenpox are caused by
viruses.
3. Name any two diseases caused by protozoa.
Ans: Dysentery and malaria are caused by
protozoa.
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5.Why milk is boiled before storage and
consuming?
Ans: Milk is boiled to prevent spoilage due
to development of microorganisms.
6.Why are viruses different from other
microorganisms?
Ans: Viruses are also tiny but are different
from other microorganisms as they show
reproduction. They reproduce inside the host
cell which may be a bacterium, plant or
animal.
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7.Why is yeast used in the baking industry for making
bread, cakes and pastries?
Ans: Yeast reproduces quickly and produces carbon
dioxide during respiration.
Yeast makes breads, cakes and pastries soft and spongy.
This is the basis of using yeast in the baking industry.
8.Why are some microorganisms considered as
harmful?
Ans: Some species of bacteria, viruses cause diseases in
human beings, plants and animals. Some bacteria cause
tuberculosis and typhoid, some kinds of virus cause
common cold and influenza. Some microorganisms also
cause decomposition of food and clothing. Thus this
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BRANCHES OF MICROBIOLOGY
I. Bacteriology (study of bacteria)
II. Mycology (study of fungi)
III. Protozoology (study of protozoa)
IV. Algology (study of algae)
V. Parasitology (study of parasites)
VI. Genetics (study of heredity and variation)
VII. Immunology (study of mechanism involved in
the development of resistance by body to
infectious diseases

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LECTURE TWO
CONDITIONS WHICH FAVORS
ACTIVITIES OF MICROORGANISMS

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CONDITIONS WHICH FAVORS ACTIVITIES
OF MICROORGANISMS
1. SOIL MOISTURE
 soil moisture is useful to the microorganisms
in two ways
1.It serve as source of nutrients and supplies
hydrogen / oxygen to the organisms .
2.It serve as solvent and carrier of other food
nutrients to the microorganism.

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 Presence of adequate moisture favor the
activities of microorganism BUT the absence
of adequate moisture in soil, lower the
activities of some of microbes due to tissue
dehydration, lack of nutrients, hydrogen /
oxygen
2. SOIL TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the environmental factor
influencing the biological ,physical &
chemical processes of microbes, microbial
activity and population
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Temperature affect microbial population and
their activity especially in temperate regions.
If there is favorable temperature to the
microorganisms,the activities of
microorganisms are favored BUT if there is
unfavorable temperature the activities of
microorganisms are lowered
 In winter, when temperature is low , the
number and activity of microorganisms falls
down, and as the soils warms up in spring, they
increases in number as well as activity
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3. SOIL REACTION / SOIL PH
The activities of the most of the soil
microorganisms such as bacteria, blue- green
algae, fungi and protozoa at a neutral or
slightly alkaline reaction (between pH 4.5 and
8.5) BUT if soil PH is to high or too low,
activities most of microorganisms is lowered

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 Neutrophiles microorganisms multiply
within the range of pH 4.5 (acidic) to pH 8.5
(basic) and have a pH optimum near neutral
(pH 7).
 Acidophiles microorganisms grow
optimally at a pH below 4.5
 Alkalophiles microorganisms grow
optimally at a pH above 8.5

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4. SOIL AIR (AERATION)
Activities of soil microbes is often measured in terms
of the amount of oxygen absorbed or amount of C O2
evolved by the organisms in the soil environment
 Depending upon oxygen requirements, soil
microorganisms are grouped into categories
 Obligate Aerobic (require oxygen for processes)
e.g.Azotobacter spp.
If there is sufficient oxygen, activities of the Obligate
Aerobic favored BUT if there is low amount of
oxygen activities to the Obligate Aerobic is lowered

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Obligate Anaerobic (do not require oxygen)
If there is low amount of oxygen the
activities of the Obligate Anaerobic favored
BUT if there is high amount of oxygen
activities of Obligate Anaerobic lowered

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OTHERS ARE
Facultative anaerobes grow better if O2 is
present, but can also grow without it
 Microaerophiles require small amounts of
O2 (2% to 10%) for aerobic respiration; higher
concentrations are inhibitory
 Aerotolerant anaerobes they can grow in
presence of O2, but they do not use it to
transform energy

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5. SOIL ORGANIC MATTER
The organic matter in soil is the chief source
of energy and food for most of the soil
organisms, it has great influence on the
microbial population.
 Also influences the structure and texture of
soil
 If there is sufficient organic Matter,
activities of microorganisms favored BUT
if there is insufficient organic Matter
activities of microorganisms is lowed
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6.CULTURAL PRACTICES (TILLAGE)
Ploughing and tillage operations facilitate
aeration in soil and exposure of soil to sunshine
and thereby increase the biological activity of
organisms, particularly of Aerobic bacteria
BUT poor cultural practices lower the activities
of the microorganisms especially Aerobic
bacteria
.

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7.MICROBIAL ASSOCIATIONS / INTERACTIONS
 The mutualism symbiotic association
influences the activity of soil microbes BUT
predatory habit lower the activities and
population of prey

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8.NATURE OF SOIL
 The physical and chemical nature of soil and
its nutrient status influence the microbial
population both quantitatively and qualitatively
 The soils with good physical condition have
better aeration and moisture content which is
essential for optimum microbial activity.
 Nutrients (macro and micro) and organic
constituents of humus are responsible for
absence or presence of certain type of
microorganisms and their activity
The soil with good physical, chemical and
nutrient status favors the activities of the
microorganisms BUT poor physical,
chemical and nutrient status to the soil lower
the activities of the microorganisms

For example activity and presence of nitrogen

fixing bacteria is greatly influenced by the
availability of molybdenum and absence of
phosphate restricts the growth of azotobacter