LESSON 6-7

COVERAGE
DEONTOLOGY
GENERAL EDUCATION 9
LESSON 6-7 –
GE9 Coverage

UTILITARIANISM/ CONSEQUENTIALISM

DEONTOLOGY

VIRTUE ETHICS

NATURAL LAW AND THEORY OF JUSTICE

 •Kant identifies two types of knowledge, the
knowledge acquired ‘A Posteriori’ (after experience).
and the knowledge acquired ‘A Priori’ (Before
experience).
•All scientific knowledge are examples of knowledge
acquired ‘A Posteriori’

Knowledge of the •“A Priori’, i.e., knowledge we could know even

without being taught or even without seeing them but

principles of by virtue of pure reason devoid of any experience.

•. Kant argues that “…all moral concepts have their

morality is ‘A Priori’
seat and origin completely ‘a priori’ in reason…They
cannot be abstracted from any empirical, and hence
merely contingent, cognition.” (Grounding, 411)
Rationalism &
Empiricism
This simply means that we
could know that lying, not
keeping promises and the likes
to be morally wrong by virtue of
priori principles. On the other
hand, we would know that
helping people in need is
morally good even no one told
us about it.
 Known as the DUTY ETHICS
Claims to follow the PRINCIPLE OF
UNIVERSALITY
- it is a guiding principle for the
morality of man’s action.
- it is deemed to be done by everyone
DEONTOLOG for the basis that it is be done.

Y Comes from Greek word “deon” – duty or

obligation.
- simply means that the morality of
the action is not based on consequence or
the result of the act, but on the sense of duty.
 Kant, Immanuel –

• “man’s action is derived from his

DEONTOLO reason.”
• through reason man can know the
GY laws of morality which are universal
and absolutely binding on all men.
CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE –
commands that the law should
be obeyed unconditionally.
 KANT & THE RIGHTS THEORISTS

before ACT after

Principle Agent Consequence

 Kantian interpretation of the categorical
imperative is mainly concerned with the
dignity of the person ( principle of
humanity).

Kant “ person has a deep and meaningful

DEONTOLO dignity because of his rationality. Because
GY man is endowed with reason. And has the
ability to choose or decide.

DIGNITY – is a person’s consciousness of

achieving his end.
 In his book “Grounding for the
Metaphysics of Morals” Kant
says, “There is no possibility of
thinking of anything at all in the
world, or even out of it, which
can be regarded as good
Good will without qualification, except a
good will.” (Grounding 393)
• “For when moral value is being
considered, the concern is not
with the actions, which are
seen, but rather with their inner
principles, which are not seen.”
(Grounding 407) The highest
good then is none other than
the ‘good will’, not happiness.
Do the good even if it does not
make you happy or even if it
will give you unpleasant
outcomes.
Autonomy of the Will

If anyone’s ‘will’ is not free from

any dictate or external
influences or external motive,
the will is called by Kant as
“Heteronomy of the Will”, e.g. if
one’s will tend to choose some
act for a corresponding reward.
Thus, any external command or
external motive (reward or
punishment) make the ‘Will’
heteronomous.
Universal Validity of Maxim

Kant urges us to craft our own

imperatives free from dictates of
any external influence, such as
command or rewards. However,
we should not only craft any
imperative without considering
its universal validity. Kant says,
“Act as if the maxim of your
action were to become through
your will a universal law of
nature.” (Grounding, 421)
 For him it is our duty to do good.
We do good for goodness sake and
Morality is a nothing else, not for happiness, not
because it is our inclination, not
Duty because of a reward and not
because of any external influence.

Kant says, “…this duty, prior to all

experience, is contained as duty in
general in the idea of a reason that
determines the will by means of a
priori grounds.” (Grounding 408)
 WHAT TO DO?
TREAT HUMANITY AS ENDS AND NEVER
AS MEANS .
LESSON
6-7
Ge9:ethics
UTILITARIANISM/ CONSEQUENTIALISM
DEONTOLOGY
VIRTUE ETHICS
NATURAL LAW
Consequentialism

An act is good in reference to its Act is good if the result is good and the
consequence or result. act is bad id the consequence is bad
 Also known
as teleological
ethics.

Consequentialism Elaboration: Telos- end

Egoism,
hedonism,
pragmatism,
utilitarianism.
Consequentialism
Jeremy Bentham – founder of this norm
find the problem that during his time lies
the incapability of the laws to help people
attain happiness.
Consequentialism
Action is permissible if it promotes pleasure
or happiness for the majority.
Consequentialism

“it is not enough to base

the goodness of the
action from the act
John Stuart- Mill
alone. (if we do so, we
can only get quantity of
pleasure).
Consequentialism

John Stuart- Mill It is through actions conforming the rules,

will it produce greatest pleasure.
 Hedonic Calculus

When an individual (or government) has to make a moral

decision one measures the value of action (or law) according
to the metric Hedonic Calculus. Hedonic Calculus, also
known as felicific calculus, is introduced by Bentham. The
result of the equation will determine the morality of the
decision or law. Seven criteria are involved in such a
measuring device, in Bentham’s very own words they are as
follows:
 (1) its intensity. (How intense is the
pleasure or pain?)

(2) its duration. (How long does the

Hedonic pleasure or pain last?)

Calculus (3) its certainty or uncertainty. (How

probable is the occurrence of pleasure or
pain)

(4) its nearness or remoteness. (Also

known as Propinquity: How far off is the
pleasure or pain?)
 (5) its fecundity, i.e. its chance of
being followed by sensations of
the same kind (pleasure by
pleasure, pain by pain)

Hedonic (6) its purity, i.e. its chance of not

being followed by sensations of
Calculus the opposite kind (pleasure by
pain, pain by pleasure).

(7) its extent, i.e. the number of

persons to whom it extends or (in
other words) who are affected by
it.
• “Bentham does not recommend that they
figure into every act of moral deliberation
because of the efficiency costs which
need to be considered.” (SEP: The
History of Utilitarianism) We should also
learn from experience and consider
obvious facts. The Utilitarian Principle
does not only apply to human actions
alone; Laws can also be crafted if it could
produce more pleasures than pains for the
people. However, unlike the Divine Laws
and Kant’s Imperatives that are absolute,
Bentham’s is mutable. Thus, the law
should be changed if the social conditions
change or if the law no longer produces
more pleasures than pains.
The Greatest
Happiness Principle Unlike other consequentialist ethical
theories such as Egoism, Bentham and Mill
concern themselves with the well-being and
happiness of all people (or at least the
majority). For Mill, the Utilitarian
Standard…“is not the agent’s own greatest
happiness, but the greatest amount of
happiness altogether…” (Mill 1863, Chap
2) A girl may abort her pregnancy, but it
must not only for her own pleasure but for
many over one embryo. A dying ninety-two
years old grandfather might be euthanized
for the welfare of the entire family for if not
doing so may result into miseries of all
family me
Utilitarianism

the life and works of John Stuart-Mill.

John Stuart-Mill was one of the most
influential English Philosopher of the
19th Century. He is known as a
naturalist, utilitarianist and a liberal,
whose works explores the consequence
of an action.
he was a student of Jeremy Bentham, of which he also got and
develop his own Utilitarian concept. At an early age he was trained
in many educational instructions. It was said na at 3 years old
Greek and at 8 years old he is studying algebra, read the ancient
philosophies like of Socrates and Plato and in his free time he read
Don Quixote.
That principle, of course, is the principle
of utility.

desirability: that happiness is exhaustiveness: that nothing but impartiality: that each person’s
desirable as an end, happiness is desirable as an end, happiness is equally desirable.
and
LESSON 7: VIRTUE
ETHICS
GENERAL EDUCATION 9
Coverage for ge9
UTILITARIANISM/ CONSEQUENTIALISM

DEONTOLOGY

VIRTUE ETHICS

NATURAL LAW
 HOW SHOULD I LIVE?

VIRTUE WHAT KIND OF

ETHICS PERSON SHOULD I BE?

WHAT IS THE RIGHT

ACTION SHOULD I DO?
 ◦ THE THEORY IS FOCUSED ON
UNDERSTANDING THE
ESSENTIAL CHARACTER
VIRTUE ETHICS TRAITS OF A PERSON AS A
WAY TO ATTAIN VIRTUES
IS CHARACTER- ◦ IT LOOKS AT THE VIRTUE OR
RATHER THAN MORAL CHARACTER OF THE
PERSON CARRYING OUT AN
ACTION BASED ACTION, RATHER THAN AT THE
ETHICAL DUTIES AND RULES,
OR CONSEQUENCES OF
PARTICULAR ACTIONS.
 IT IS GOOD BECAUSE IT IS
MANIFESTATION OF ONE’S VIRTUE OF
BEING HELPFUL.

EX.
HELPING
OTHERS…
IT IS THE FULFILLMENT OF ONE’S
POTENTIAL OF A PERSON THAT MAKES
HIM VIRTUOUS.

why do you
help other? IT IS THE ACTUALIZATION OF ALL
HUMAN POTENTIALITIES, CONSIDERING
ALL IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF HUMAN
NATURE, INCLUDING THE INHERENT
SOCIAL CHARACTER OF THE HUMAN
PERSON.
 A VIRTUE IS NOT ONLY A
TENDENCY OR AN INCLINATION TO
DO GOOD BUT ALSO REQUIRES A
FRAME OF MIND THAT CONSIDERS
THE WHOLE RANGE OF REASONS
FOR THE ACTION.
A VIRTUE ETHICIST DOES
NOT ONLY END AT
CHOOSING WHAT VIRTUE
SHOULD HE INHERIT BUT
ALSO ABLE TO SAY WHY!
 VIRTUE ETHICS

EX. AN HONEST PERSON DOES NOT ONLY DO HONEST

DEALINGS FOR FEAR OF BEING CAUGHT OR BECAUSE OF
DOGMATIC ADHERENCE TO SOME UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES BUT
BECAUSE HE FINDS IT PROPER THING TO DO BECAUSE HIS
WHOLE THING- WORLD VIEW, EMOTION, REASONS- SUPPORTS
THE ACTION AND LOATHES IF HE TELLS A LIE.
 MORAL PERSON IS
PLATO ( 427- 327
THE TRULY HAPPY
BC )
PERSON

EACH OF US
HOW TO ACHIEVE
WANTS TO BE
HAPPY
HAPPINESS?
PROPONENTS
OF VIRTUE
ETHICS
HAPPINESS IS
GAINED THROUGH 4 CARDINAL
DISCOVERING VIRTUES PEOPLE
AND PURSUING SHOULD POSSESS:
VIRTUES

1) PRUDENCE 2)
JUSTICE 3)
COURAGE 4)
TEMPERANCE
HUMAN SOUL HAS
THREE 1) INTELLECT
ELEMENTS:

2) WILL 3) EMOTION
PLATO’S
IDEA OF
EVERY ELEMENT
POSSESES A
SPECIFIC VIRTUE
THE VIRTUE OF
INTELLECT IS
WISDOM OR THE
HUMAN
AND PERFORMS A
SPECIFIC TASK
KNOWLEDGE OF
THE ENDS OF LIFE SOUL
THE VIRTUE OF THE VIRTUE OF
EMOTION IS WILL IS COURAGE
TEMPERANCE OR OR THE CAPACITY
SELF-CONTROL TO ACT
VIRTUE ETHICS
◦ THE ULTIMATE VIRTUE IS JUSTICE, THE HARMONIOUS RELATION OF ALL OTHERS

◦ PLATO MAINTAINED THAT THE INTELLECT SHOULD BE SOVEREIGN

◦ THE RATIONAL PART OF THE SOUL OR MIND- WHICH IS COPIED FROM THE ETERNAL
AND IMMUTABLE WORLD- MUST GOVERN THE SPIRITUAL, EMOTIONAL AND
APPETITIVE PARTS IN ORDER TO LEAD ALL DESIRES AND ACTIONS TO EUDAIMONIA
OR HAPPINESS
◦ THE JUST PERSON, WHOSE LIFE IS ORDERED IN THIS WAY, IS THE GOOD PERSON
 VIRTUE ETHICS
◦ HAPPINESS IS GAINED THROUGH DISCOVERING AND PURSUING VIRTUE.
◦ IT IS NOT ENOUGH TO HAVE JUST ONE VIRTUE, ALL VIRTUES MUST BALANCE WORK
TOGETHER
◦ AN ACT THAT DOES NOT REFLECT A VIRTUOUS CHARACTER IS AN ACT DONE OUT OF
IGNORANCE
◦ A MORAL PERSON IS A TRULY HAPPY PERSON
◦ AND BECAUSE MAN ALWAYS DESIRE HIS OWN HAPPINESS, HE ALWAYS DESIRE TO DO
MORAL ACTIONS
 IT IS BY WAY OF EDUCATION THAT MAKES
PEOPLE EXERCISE THESE VIRTUES

TO ATTAIN HAPPINESS IS TO OVERCOME

VICE OR EVIL AS RESULTS OF IGNORANCE

VIRTUE VIRTUE IS KNOWLEDGE

ETHICS
VICE OR EVIL IS IGNORANCE

A MAN WHO WANTS TO LIVE IN ETHICAL

WORLD SHOULD SEEK TO DISCOVER GOOD.
 BEING VIRTUOUS IS THE ACHIEVEMENT OF MAN’S HIGHEST GOOD

THIS INCLUDES RIGHT CULTIVATION OF THE SOUL, THE CONSTANT

IMITATION OF THE GOOD

VIRTUE “TO KNOW THE GOOD IS TO DO THE GOOD.”

ETHICS EX. A JUST PERSON IS A GOOD PERSON

PLATO’S CONVICTION THAT THE MORAL PERSON IS THE TRULY HAPPY

PERSON, AND BECAUSE INDIVIDUALSALWAYS DESIRE THEIR OWN
HAPPINESS, THEY ALWAYS DESIRE TO DO THAT WHICH IS MORAL.

CRITIQUE: HOW ABOUT THOSE PEOPLE WHO SEE HAPPINESS AS THE

ACHIEVEMENT OF MATERIAL THINGS, RICHES?
 ARISTOTLE (384- 322 BC )
◦ MORAL MAN IS THE MAN OF VIRTUE
◦ BUT HE DOES NOT SEE VIRTUE AS THE OPPOSITE OF VICE
◦ VIRTUE IS THE MEAN BETWEEN TWO EXTREMES–
Proponent 2: MIDDLE WAY
◦ FINDING THE MIDDLE WAY IS THE KEY TO LEADING A
MORAL LIFE
◦ EX. COURAGE IS THE MEAN BETWEEN COWARDICE AND
FOOLISH BRAVADO
HAPPINESS IS THE ULTIMATE GOAL OF LIFE

IT IS AN ACTIVITY THAT ACCORDS WITH THE SPECIFIC NATURE OF

HUMANITY

IT RESULTS FROM THE HUMAN ATTRIBUTE OF REASON, WHICH

FUNCTIONS HARMONIOUSLY WITH HUMAN FACULTIES

WE GET BETTER WITH PRACTICE

V.E. of
Aristotle
EXCELLENCE IS A HABIT

BEFORE IT BECOMES A HABIT, IT REQUIRES MORAL EDUCATION

BECOMING VIRTUOUS IS A DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESS, IN PERSONAL

CONTEMPLATION ABOUT WHAT GOOD HE CAN BRING IN THE
COMMUNITY
◦ VIRTUES ARE ESSENTIALLY GOOD HABITS
◦ MORAL VIRTUES ARE HABITS OF ACTION THAT
CONFORM TO THE GOLDEN MEAN, THE
PRINCIPLE OF MODERATION
◦ MEAN MEANS BEING BETWEEN THE TWO
EXTREMES OF EXCESS AND INSUFFICIENCY.
( SIMILAR TO YIN-YANG PRINCIPLE FOR CHINESE)
◦ EX. GENEROSITY IS THE MEAN BETWEEN
Aristotle
PRODIGALITY AND STINGINESS
◦ FOR ARISTOTLE, THE INTELLECTUAL AND
MORAL VIRTUES ARE MERELY MEANS TOWARD
THE ATTAINMENT OF HAPPINESS, WHICH
RESULTS FROM THE FULL REALIZATION OF
HUMAN POTENTIAL.
 DO WE NEED TO MAINTAIN A
PASSING GRADE OF 75 TO
CRITIQUE: AVOID THE EXCESS EXTREME?
HOW ABOUT MEDIOCRITY?
AUTHORITARIAN ETHICS
🞂 - CLAIMS THAT THE MORALITY OF AN ACT IS DETERMINED BY
AUTHORITY.
🞂 AN ACT IS GOOD AS LONG AS IT CONFORMS TO THE MORAL
STANDARDS SET BY THE AUTHORITY, OR BAD IF IT IS AGAINST
THE WILL OF THE AUTHORITY.
🞂 SOURCES OF AUTHORITY:
🞂 1) DIVINE COMMAND THEORY/ RELIGION
🞂 2) NATURAL LAW THEORY
🞂 3) LEGALISM/ HUMAN POSITIVE LAW
DIVINE COMMAND THEORY
🞂 -THE AUTHORITY RESIDES IN GOD
🞂 GOD DETERMINES WHAT IS RIGHT AND WRONG
🞂 THE WILL OF GOD CAN BE FOUND IN HOLY SCRIPTURES FOR
CHRISTIANS AND KORAN FOR MUSLIMS
🞂 WHAT IS WRITTEN IN THE SCRIPTURE IS ASSUMED BY THE
COMMUNITY OF BELIEVERS TO BE ABSOLUTELY TRUE.
🞂 TO DEFY SUCH LEADS TO CONDEMNATION AND WORSE,
EXPULSION FROM THEIR RESPECTIVE RELIGION.
NATURAL LAW THEORY
🞂 - HUMAN NATURE SHOULD BE THE GOVERNING PRINCIPLE OR
STANDARD OF MORALITY.
🞂 PROPONENT:
🞂 ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
🞂 -INFLUENCED BY ARISTOTLE
🞂 THE END OF MAN IS GEARED TOWARDS HAPPINESS
🞂 A PERSON ACTS OR DOES SOMETHING IN ORDER TO BE HAPPY.
🞂 HAPPINESS SHOULD BE DONE IN THE ACT OF MODERATION
🞂 BUT FOR ST. THOMAS, ARISTOTLE’S HAPPINESS IS TEMPORAL
BECAUSE IT ONLY REFERS TO HAPPINESS OF MIND AND BODY
🞂 FOR ST. THOMAS, IT IS NOT ONLY HAPPINESS OF THE MIND AND
BODY, BUT HAPPINESS OF THE SOUL AS WELL.
🞂 WE COULD ONLY ACHIEVE SUCH HAPPINESS WITH GOD,
WHICH IS NOT TEMPORAL BUT ETERNAL HAPPINESS.
LEGALISM
🞂 ALSO KNOWN AS HUMAN POSITIVE LAW
🞂 SIMPLY MEANS THE LAW OF THE STATE
🞂 THE MORALITY OF THE ACT IS DICTATED BY THE LAWS CREATED
BY MAN
🞂 IT IS WRITTEN AND PASSED BY THE LEGISLATORS TO ADHERE
THE CONSTITUTION AS THE GREATEST LAW OF THE LAND
🞂 LAW IS THE ORDINACE OF REASON PROMULGATED BY THE
COMPETENT AUTHORITY FOR THE SAKE OF COMMON GOOD
🞂 IT MEANS THAT AN ACT IS GOOD OR MORAL AS LONG AS IT IS
NOT AGAINST THE LAWS OR ORDINANCES IN A CERTAIN
PLACE OR SOCIETY
🞂 ART. III OF THE CIVIL CODE STATES THAT: “IGNORANCE OF
THE LAW EXCUSES NO ONE FROM COMPLIANCE
THEREWITH.”
🞂 DURALEX SEDLEX= THE LAW MAY BE HARSH, BUT IT IS THE
LAW
🞂 THE AUTHORITY TO BE FOLLOWED IN LEGALISM RESIDES IN
THE LAW ITSELF CREATED BY MAN FOR THE BETTERMENT OF
EVERYONE
🞂 FOLLOWING THE LAWS OF THE LAND IS LIVING A GOOD AND
MORAL LIFE.
 JOHN RAWLS THEORY OF JUSTICE
ORIGINAL POSITION
2 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF JUSTICE
 Justice as Fairness: Rawlsian
O John Rawls
- b. 1921
- Ph. D. at Princeton, Fulbright Fellow at Oxford in 1952, he worked with
HLA Hart and Isaiah Berlin.
- 1962, professor at Harvard
- Works: Theory of Justice, Political Liberalism, Law of Peoples, and
Justice as Fairness
- d. 2002
O A fair method of resolving conflicts involving justice
O His method serves as principles of distributive justice
O Two Basic Principles: The distribution of benefits and burdens in a
society is just only if:
1) Each person has an equal right to the most extensive basic liberties
compatible with similar liberties for all, and
2) Social and economic inequalities are arranged so that they are
both:
a. To the greatest benefit of the least advantaged persons, and
b. Attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair
equality of opportunity.
O Principle 1 takes priority over principle 2 if they come into
conflict

O Within principle 2, 2b takes priority over 2a

O Principle 1: Principle of Equal Liberty: “each citizen’s
liberties must be protected from invasion by others and
must be equal to those of others.
O Basic liberties: right to vote, freedom of speech and
conscience, civil liberties, freedom to hold personal
property, freedom from arbitrary arrest.
e.g. contracts must be free of fraud and must be honored.
Employees must render services justly contracted with
employer.
O Principle 2a: difference principle. “a productive society will
incorporate inequalities, but takes steps to improve the position od
the neediest members of society.”
O The more productive a society is, the more benefits it will be
able to provide for the least –advantage members, the sick and
disabled.
e.g. to maximize benefits for the least advantage, business institutions
should be efficient in their use of resources.
Price fixing, pollution, unjust
O Principle 2b: principle of fair equality of opportunity: “everyone
should be given an equal opportunity to qualify for the more
privileged positions in society’s institutions.”
e.g. job qualifications should not only be related to requirements of the job
but also each person must have access to training and education needed
to qualify for the job. Remuneration would depend person’s efforts,
abilities, and contribution.
O Rawl's theory provides us not only with a set of principles of justice
but also a general method for evaluating the adequacy of any moral
principle in a fair way.

O “The method consists of determining what principles a group of

rational self-interested persons would choose to live by if they knew
they would live in a society governed by those principles, but they
did not yet know what each of them would turn out to be like in the
society.”
O “a principle ia morally justified principle of justice if, and
only if, the principle would be accepted to a group of
rational self-interested persons who know they will live in a
society governed by the principles they accept, but who do
not know what sex, race, abilities, religon, interest, social
position, income, or other particular characteristics each of
them will psess in that future society,”
O Original Position- “an imaginary meeting of rational self-
interested persons who must choose the principles of justice by which
their society will be governed,”

O Veil of Ignorance- “the requirement that persons in the original

position must not know particulars about themeselves which might bias
their choices such as their sex, religion, race, income, etc.”