LESSON 1:

GE9: ETHICS
GE 9 FACULTY
 1987 Philippine Constitution
• Article II
• Section 13
• The State recognizes the vital role of
the youth in nation-building and shall
promote and protect their physical,
moral, spiritual, intellectual, and social
well-being. It shall inculcate in the
youth patriotism and nationalism, and
encourage their involvement in public
and civic affairs.
• Section 17
• The State shall give priority to
education, science and technology,
arts, culture and sports to foster
patriotism and nationalism, accelerate
social progress, and promote total
human liberation and development.

* Sociology Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr. 2

 1987 Philippine Constitution
• Article XIV
• Section 1
• Protect and promote the
right of all citizens to
quality education at all
levels
• Section 3
• All educational institutions
must develop in their
students critical and
creative thinking

Introduction to and History of Philosophy

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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Critical and Creative Thinking
• Philosophical Dimension
• Analytical
• Synthetic
• Process of inference

Introduction to and History of Philosophy

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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Etymology
• Philos + Sophia
• Love
• Wisdom
• Practical knowledge
• Love for Wisdom
• Philosophy
• Not a subject
• Act (action like P.E. but cognitive)
• Act of Philosophizing
• Catching oneself with a serious
question that affects one’s life
• Act of intellectual quest that transcends the
limits of the science
• Endless search for meaning, ultimate reason,
cause, principle and absolute truth
• Weltanschauung (German) World view of
person
Introduction to and History of Philosophy
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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Etymology
• Pythagoras
• 580 B.C. – 497 B.C.
• Coined the term Philos and Sophia
• Mathematician
• Called himself as Lover of Wisdom
instead of Wise Man which is
commonly used in Greece

Introduction to and History of Philosophy

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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Branches of Philosophy
• Practical Philosophy/ Logic
• Reasoning and Argumentation
• Critical Philosophy/ Epistemology
• Concept of Knowledge
• Speculative Philosophy/
Metaphysics
• Fundamental questions of Reality
• Normative Philosophy/ Ethics
• Human Values
• Aesthetics
• Beauty and Art

Introduction to and History of Philosophy

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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Areas of Philosophy
• Philosophy of the Human Person
• Continental Philosophy
• Oriental Philosophy
• Western Philosophy
• Social Philosophy
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Education
• Political Philosophy
• Filipino Philosophy
Introduction to and History of Philosophy
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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Introduction to and History of Philosophy
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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Significance of Philosophy
• Philosophy
• Provides solutions to the
problems that concern
people of today.
• Religion
• Politics
• Education
• Language
• Arts
• Economy
• Morality
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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Philosophical Concerns
• Ancient
• Cosmocentric
• What is the basic stuff of the universe?

• Medieval
• Theocentric
• Does God exist?

• Modern
• Anthropocentric
• What is the meaning and the purpose of the
Human Person?

• Contemporary
• Wholistic
• What is?
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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Ancient Philosophy
• Schools of Thought
• Stoicism
• Moral Philosophy
• Emphasis on morality, virtue, calm and
emotional fortitude
• Epicureanism
• Happiness
• Philosophy could enable man to life a
happy life
• Wisdom and simple living will result to a
life free from fear and pain
• Cynicism
• Naturalist Philosophy
• Purpose of life is to live in virtue and in
agreement with nature
• Human beings’ have self-centered
interest in everything and their sincerity
cannot be trusted
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 Ancient Philosophy
• Ancient Philosophers
600 B.C. – 600 A.D.
• Thales of Miletus (624 B.C. – c. 546 B.C.) – Water
• Anaximander (610 B.C. – 546 B.C.) - Apeiron
• Heraclitus (574 B.C. – 540 B.C.) – Logos (change)
• Anaximenes (585 B.C. – 525 B.C.) – Air
• Anaxagoras (500 B.C. – 428 B.C.) – Fire (change)
• Parmenides (515 B.C. – 485 B.C.) – Change is unreal; universe
has no beginning and no end
• Democritus (460 B.C. – 370 B.C.) – Causes of natural
phenomena. Matter is composed of atoms
• Diogenes of Sinope (412 B.C. – 323 B.C.) – Advocate of simple
and virtuous life. One should not only talk of virtue but should
show it in words and actions. Live like a beggar and criticized
Plato and Aristotle. Developed Cynicism and Stoicism
• Archimedes (384 – 322) – Mathematics to analyze natural
phenomena
• Epicurus (341 B.C. – 270 B.C.) Epicureanism means wisdom
results to happiness
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 Greatest Philosophers
• Greatest Philosophers
• Socrates
• Plato
• Aristotle
• School of Athens
• Painting of Raphael in 1509

Introduction to and History of Philosophy

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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Socrates
• Socrates
• 470 BC – 399 BC
• Father was a Stonemason and mother was a midwife
• Has an ugly physical appearance but claimed to have inner
beauty of the soul
• Classical Greek Athenian Philosopher
• Maxim: “I know that I do not know.” and “An unexamined
life is not worth living. Know thyself.”
• Roamed and taught in Agora
• Used Socratic Method
• Dialectic/ Question and Answer Method

Introduction to and History of Philosophy

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 Socrates
• Socrates
• Teacher of Plato
• Father of Moral
Philosophy (Ethics)
• Ethics
• To know the good is to
do good
• Prosecuted by Meletus
from the accusation of
Anytus
• Impiety
• Corrupting the minds
of the minor
• Was made to drink the
chalice of Hemlock
• Died: Age 70

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 Activity
• Topic
• Who am I?
• Situation
• As a Human Person
• Instruction
• Discussion
• Essay (5 Points)
• 1 Paragraph
• Minimum of 5 sentences
• Maxim
• I know that I do not know. -
Socrates

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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Activity
• Topic
• Who am I?: Examining Life
• Situation
• As a Human Person
• Instruction
• Discussion
• Essay (30 Points)
• 6 paragraphs
• Minimum of 5 sentences
each
• Questions
• Am I my name?
• Am I my body?
• Am I my status?
• Am I my religion?
• Am I my dress?
• Am I what you think I am?
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 !Plato
• Plato (Aristocles)
• 427 BC — 347 B.C.
• Relative of Solon, Lawgiver
• Student of Socrates
• Mathematician and Poet
• Founded Academia
• From Greek hero Academus
• Lasted almost 900 years until closed by
Emperor Justinian in 529 A.D.
• Used Platonic Method
• Collection and Division (Phaedrus, 265e;
Smith, 2017)

Introduction to and History of Philosophy

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 !Plato
• Plato (Aristocles)
• Teacher of Aristotle
• World of Forms
• Unchanging
• Human Person
• Rational, Spirited and Appetitive
• Soul
• Can exists even without the body
because of its being immaterial
• Intimately united with the body
but still distinct
• Logos (Intellect), Thymos (Will)
and Eros (Emotion)
• Virtues can be taught
• Prudence/ Wisdom , Fortitude,
Temperance and Justice
• Ethics
• To know the good is to do good

Introduction to and History of Philosophy

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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Plato
• Works:
• Symposium
• Origin of the Universe/ World
• Phaedrus
• Platonic Love
• Non-dalliance
• The Republic
• Ideal Society
• Gyges’ Ring
• Excerpt from The Republic
Book II, 356-360
• Invisible man’s ring
• Ethics as a result of fear of
shame, incarceration and
retaliation
• Allegory of the Cave
• Excerpt from The Republic
Book VII 514a-520a
• Imprisonment in Ignorance
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 Plato
• Kinds of Good
• Essential
• Satisfies the need of the human person e.g.
food, water, shelter et al
• Accidental
• Satisfies the wants of the human person e.g.
money, cars, et al
• Real
• Intrinsic value e.g. Persons and Relationship
• Apparent
• Evil which is subjectively viewed as good e.g.
drinking, smoking, drugs, et al
• Perfective
• Integral growth and development of the
human person e.g. education, sports,
medicines, et al
• Non-perfective
• External appearance of the human person e.g.
title, dress, et al
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 !Aristotle
• Aristotle
• 384 BC – 322 BC
• Birthplace: Stagira, Thrace, Macedonia
(Northern Greece)
• Father: Nicomachus (Court Physician in
Macedonia under King Amnytas II, father of
King Philip)
• Student (17 years old) of Plato (61 years old)
• Learned and taught in Academia (20 years)
• Teacher of Alexander the Great and Ptolemy
• The Father of Logic
• Organon (Greek) Instrument
• Founded Lyceum, a Peripatetic School of
Philosophy
• Ethics: Golden Mean
• Principle of Moderation
• Death: Age 62 in Chalcis
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 Golden Mean of Aristotle
Vice of Deficiency Virtuous Mean Vice of Excess
Cowardice Courage Rashness
Want of Ambition Right Ambition Over-ambition
Ironical Depreciation Sincerity Boastfulness
Boorishness Wittiness Buffoonery
Humble-mindedness High-mindedness Vaingloriness
Spiritlessness Good Temper Irascibility
Insensibility Temperance Intemperance
Illiberality Liberality Prodigality
Pettiness Munificence Vulgarity
Surliness Friendly Civility Obsequiousness
Shamelessness Modesty Bashfulness
Callousness Just Resentment Spitefulness
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 Aristotle
• Treatises
• Nicomachean Ethics
• Dedicated by Aristotle to his son Nicomachus
• Reason distinguishes human person from other beings
• Practicing the good habitually
• We become what we are by what we do and not merely on
what we know
• Formation of one’s character to attain our Ergon (Latin)
Function or Telos (Latin) End that is Happiness
• Eudemian Ethics
• Eudaimonia (Latin) Happiness
• Happiness is the goal of life not as means
• Not just an emotion but a state of being
• Attainable by habitual virtue
• Kinds of Habit
• Mental Activity e.g. Contemplation
• Practical Action e.g. Courage
• Magna Moralia
• Great Ethics

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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Aristotle
• Books
• Physics
• Poetry
• Music
• Politics
• Biology
• Zoology
• Categories
• Elements of
Empedocles
• Causality
• Material
• Formal
• Efficient
• Final
• World of Matter
• Senses
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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Medieval Philosophy
• Schools of Thought
• Scholasticism
• Application of philosophy to define
and explain religious doctrines

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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Medieval Philosophy
• Medieval Philosophers
• 600AD - 1600AD
• St. Augustine of Hippo
• Boethius
• Peter Abelard
• St. Anselm of Canterbury
• St. Bonaventure
• St. Thomas Aquinas
• John Duns Scotus
• William of Ockham
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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Modern Philosophy
• Schools of Thought
• Anthropocentrism
• Emphasis of the human person
• Rationalism
• Reason and logic considered the basis of
knowledge and belief
• Deductive reasoning
• Empiricism
• Knowledge is gained through the senses and
experience
• Inductive reasoning
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Discussion on the ideal human situation and
society
• Emphasis on individual rights and liberties

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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 !Modern Philosophy
• Modern Philosophers
• 1600AD - 1900AD
• David Hume
• Sense Impression
• Moral Sense Theory
• Sympathy

• Rene Descartes
• Reason
• Immanuel Kant
• Categorical Imperative
• Unconditional Goodness

• George Hegel
• Thesis, Antithesis and Synthesis
• Soren Kierkegaard
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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 !Modern Philosophy
• Modern
Philosophers
• 1600AD - 1900AD
• John Stuart Mill
• Edmund Husserl

Introduction to and History of Philosophy

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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Contemporary Philosophy
• Schools of Thought
• Existentialism
• Emphasis on the existence of the human
person as subject and not an object
• Pragmatism
• Emphasis on the practical use of
knowledge and ideas
• Phenomenology
• Consciousness from the first-person point
of view
• Absurdism
• Meaning of Life is unattainable
• Postmodernism and Post-structuralism
• Analysis on how knowledge, ideas and
power relations are defined

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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Contemporary Philosophy
• Contemporary Philosophers • Cont . . .
• 1900AD - Present
• Friedrich Nietzsche
• Michel Foucault
• John Rawls
• Jurgen Habermas
• Richard Rorty
• Jacques Derrida
• Ernest Sosa
• Martin Heidegger
• Charles Taylor
• Karl Popper
• Thomas Kuhn
• Bertrand Russell
• Jean-Paul Sartre
• Peter Singer
• Alfred North Whitehead
• Ludwig Wittgenstein
• Jean Paul Sartre
• Gottlob Frege
• Jean Francois Lyotard
• Karl Marx
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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Three methods in earning wisdom
• Confucius
• Imitation
• Easy
• Experience
• Bitter
• Reflection
• Noble

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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Three Levels of Inquiry
• Common Sense
• Scientific
• Philosophical

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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Philosophizing
• Steps in Philosophizing
• Wonder
• Plato
• Starting point of Philosophy
• Doubt
• Not believing what is already presented
• Limit Situations
• Karl Japers and Soren Kierkegaard
• Man is bound to here and now
• Metaphysical Uneasiness
• Knowing beyond physical attributes
• Philosophical Questions
• Human Person’s deepest quest for
Answers
• Philosophy does not grant that we arrive
to the Answer per se, but it guarantees
*
Introduction to and History of Philosophy that it will lead us to the path going there
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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
 Philosophical Questions
• Epistemology
• What is reality?
• What is knowledge?
• How do we know that we
know?
• Metaphysics
• Who am I?
• Does God exist?
• Ethics
• Is good and evil limited to
humanity? Can animals be
good or evil?
Introduction to and History of Philosophy
• When does life begin?
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Prof. Sam Bernales, Jr.
WHAT IS ETHICS???

IT IS A BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY THAT DEALS

WITH THE RIGHTNESS AND WRONGNESS OF
AN ACTION BASED ON REASON AND
PRINCIPLES FOLLOWED.
WHAT IS VALUE?

the principles and ideals, which helps them in

making the judgement of what is more
important.
 Norms comes from the “nomos,”
WHAT IS
something that is usual, typical,
NORMS? or standard.
TYPES OF NORMS.
• AESTETIC • TECHNICAL/ • ETIQUETTE
- derived from TECHNIQUE - It is concerned
aesthesis w/c - Derived from with the proper
means “senses” techne – means action done in a
- Judgement is technical. situation that is
based on all senses - Proper way of based on what is
(smell, see, touch, doing a task pleasing and
taste and hear.) based on its practiced by the
manual. majority.
WHAT IS MORALS
• IT IS A PERSONAL IDEOLOGY THAT IS BASED ON
SOMEONE’S PRINCIPLE, IDEA, BELIEF AND ETC THAT
A PERSON FOLLOWS AS RIGHT AND GOOD.
 MORE of MORALS
• Moral judgement • Moral decision • Moral issue • Moral Dilemma

-OBSERVATION - DECISION, - USED TO REFER TO - CONSIDERING THE

BASED ON CONFONTED BY THOSE PARTICULAR COMPLICATION OF
RATIONAL CHOICES BASED SITUATIONS THAT THE SITUATION
ASSESSMENT OF ON ONE’S BELIEF ARE OFTEN THE WHEREIN THE
THE SITUATION SOURCE OF PERSON IS TORN
CONSIDERABLE AND BETWEEN
BEFORE MAKING A INCONCLUSIVE
DECISION CHOOSING
DEBATE (2/MORE GOOD OR
2/MORE EVIL.)
 LESSON 2:
GE9: ETHICS
GE 9 FACULTY
 LESSON 2
FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN BEHAVIOR
A. NATURE
B. NURTURE
C. CULTURE
D. RELIGION
DETERMINISM AND ETHICAL RELATIVISM
 NATURE VS. NATURE - “NATURE”
REFERS TO
NURTURE –
NURTURE
NATURE VS. THEORY WAS
BIOLOGICAL/GENETIC
PREDISPOSITIONS’
BASED
UPON THE
NURTURE CREDITED TO IMPACT ON HUMAN
PSYCHOLOGIS TRAITS, AND NURTURE UPBRINGIN
DESCRIBES THE
T SIR FRANCIS INFLUENCE OF G OF THE
GALTON IN LEARNING AND OTHER PERSON/
INFLUENCES FROM
1869 ONE’S ENVIRONMENT.
(BYNUM,
2002).
 CULTURE VS. TRADITION
tradition is used to describe beliefs and behaviors that
are passed on from generation to generation.

culture is used to describe the characteristics of a certain

society at a particular point in time.

Read more:
https://www.legit.ng/1187685-what-difference-culture-tradition.html
 CULTURE VS. TRADITION
culture is a more general term that is seen as a whole and
that describes human behavior, as well as character of people
who have been raised with particular cultural beliefs. It is also
a body of knowledge that contains art, language, clothing.

Read more:
https://www.legit.ng/1187685-what-difference-culture-traditi
on.html
 CULTURE VS. TRADITION
tradition is a more specific term used to describe an
event/ritual that is often practiced by individuals, or a
human behavior on certain occasion. It is also a set of
rituals that a group of people practices.

Read more:
https://www.legit.ng/1187685-what-difference-culture-tradition.html
WHAT IS SUBJECTIVITY

Subjectivity is contrasted
to the philosophy
of objectivity, which is
described as a view of
truth or reality that is free
of any individual's biases,
interpretations, feelings,
and imaginings.
WHAT IS RELATIVISM AND TOLERANCE

Relativism is the belief that

there's no absolute truth,
only the truths that a
particular individual or
culture happen to believe.
If you believe in relativism,
then you think different
people can have different
views about what's moral
and immoral.
WHAT IS Nihilism is the belief that all values
NIHILISM are baseless and that nothing can be
known or communicated. It is often
associated with extreme pessimism
and a radical skepticism that
condemns existence.

A true nihilist would believe in

nothing, have no loyalties, and no
purpose other than, perhaps, an
impulse to destroy.
 WHAT IS
DETERMINISM
WHAT IS DETERMINISM
• GENETIC -
• BIOLOGICAL-
• PSYCHOLOGICAL-
• SOCIOLOGICAL-
• CULTURAL-
Kung ikaw GA?
How are you going to put into practice this 4G of the University?

GALING GAWI
GANA GAWA
 LESSON 3:
GE9: ETHICS
GE 9 FACULTY
 LESSON 3: MORAL AGENT 3.1

VOLUNTARINESS OF AN ACT
AND
MORAL RESPONSIBILITY
• VOLUNTARINESS- the act must have proceeded from the will of the agent h
( voluntas) is the faculty with w/c an agent chooses or decides either to pe
perform an action
HUMAN ACTS
• DELIBERATE
• FREE
• VOLUNTARY

• ACTS OF MAN
• NOT DELIBRATE
• NO FREE CHOICE
• INVOLUNTARY
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A HUMAN ACT
• KNOWLEDGE
• FREEDOM
• VOLUNTARINESS

• KNOWLEDGE- the agent is aware of what he is doing

• FREEDOM- it is a free act, determined by the agent himself, free from coer
Difference between FREEDOM and FREE WILL /
VOLUNTARINESS
• FREE WILL or VOLUNTARINESS- is the INNER FACULTY of man, cannot be co
restrained

• FREEDOM- pertains to the OUTWARD exercise of FREE WILL, can be coerce

• E.g. a PRISONER can freely WILL to go anywhere he wants but he is not PH
do what he WILLS
CLASSIFICATION OF THE HUMAN ACTS
• Human acts can be generally classified based on:
• a) where do they stem up from( source or adequate cause)
• B) their accordance to REASON (moral worth or value)
ADEQUATE CAUSE
• According to adequate cause, a HUMAN ACT can be classified either as ELI
COMMANDED
• ELICITED ACTS- are simply will-acts =acts begun and completed in the WILL
• E.g. INTENTION- a HUMAN ACT that is DELIBERATE, FREE and VOLUNTARY
• E.g. a student who has the INTENTION of graduating Summa cum laude
• He knows what it means and what it takes to realize this INTENTION ( KNO
• He has the OPTION of realizing it or not (FREEDOM)
• He has the power to WILL himself to realize his intention (VOLUNTARINESS
• INTENTION, however, remains only in the will
• In order to carry it out, ACTIONS of the MIND and the BODY must be order
• These actions now can be called COMMANDED ACTS
After having the INTENTION of graduating summa cum laude, the WILL comm
the intellect to work together in the act of diligently and responsively studyin
SUB-CLASSIFICATIONS of HUMAN ACTS according
ADEQUATE CAUSE
• ELICITED ACTS
• a) WISH- defined as the FIRST TENDENCY of the WILL towards a thing
• It is the first step of the human act
• E.g. graduating summa cum laude begins with the AGENT’S WILL wishing i
• B) INTENTION- it is the PURPOSIVE TENDENCY of the WILL
• INTENTION is basically a WISH that attains a PURPOSIVE character

• WISH vs. INTENTION

• INTENTION is directed to something that is REALIZABLE
• WISH is directed to something that is EITHER REALIZABLE OR NOT
• E.g. anybody can wish to graduate summa cum laude, but only those who
below 90 can actually have the real intention of graduating summa cum la
• C) CONSENT- is the WILL’S ACCEPTANCE of the means needed for the realiz
intention. It is in this sense that CONSENT is considered FURTHER INTENTIO
• E.g. if a man honestly intends to graduate summa cum laude, he must con
necessary for realizing said intention.
• He must consent to study diligently, do his homework dutifully and be pres
everyday
• D) ELECTION- means CHOICE or SELECTION
• It is the WILL’S ACT of choosing from among the different means necessary
intention
• E.g. a student who intends to graduate summa cum laude has the OPTION
diligently and work honestly for high grades, or to simply copy from his cla
• E) USE- it pertains to the WILL’s employment of the mental and/or physica
performance of the means selected in view of realizing a particular INTENT
• E.g. a student who elects to study diligently and work hard will now emplo
eyes, hands, brain and every faculty in order to realize the intention of gra
cum laude
• F) FRUITION- is the WILL’S act of SATISFACTION or ENJOYMENT after the th
realized.
COMMANDED ACTS
• A) INTERNAL ACTS- acts done by the MIND through the COMMAND of the
• E.g. thinking, recollection, analysis
• The WILL commands the mind to purposively recall past lesson or analyse
• B) EXTERNAL ACTS- acts done by the BODY through the COMMAND of the
• E.g. going to the library, reading books
• C) MIXED ACTS- acts done by both the MIND and The BODY
• NOTES:
• 1. ALL HUMAN ACTS ARE INTERNAL INASMUCH AS ALL ORIGINATE IN THE
ELICITS OR COMMANDS THEM.
• 2. ALL EXTERNAL ACTS ARE MIXED INASMUCH AS THE OUTER ACTIVITY WH
THEM IS BUT EXPRESSION AND FULFILMENT OF THE INTERIOR ACT OF THE
MORAL WORTH OR VALUE
• According to their MORAL WORTH/VALUE or their accordance to the dicta
• A) MORAL/ MORALLY GOOD ACTS- Morally good acts that are in accordanc
RIGHT REASON
• B) IMMORAL/ MORALLY EVIL ACTS- acts that are not in accordance to the d
REASON or that which fail to measure up to the norm of morality.
• C) AMORAL/ MORALLY INDIFFERENT ACTS- acts that are NIETHER GOOD o
• E.g. talking is amoral but once it is done advertently or in view of a certain
assumes moral worth.
• AMORAL ACTS exist only in theory because ALL HUMAN ACTS are either G
virtue of the MOTIVE or PURPOSE of the AGENT
• While MORAL and IMMORAL ACTS are proper to HUMAN ACTS,
• AMORAL ACTS are more proper for NATURAL ACTS or ACTS OF MAN.
CLASSIFICATION OF ACTS ACCORDING TO THEIR
MORAL WORTH

• ACTS DONE BY AN AGENT

• HUMAN ACTS
• >MORAL • ACTS OF MAN
• >IMMORAL • > AMORAL
• >AMORAL
MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACT
• ETHICS is defined as the art and science of the morality of human act or hu
• It is primarily concerned only with HUMAN ACTS
• ACTS OF MAN may be classified HUMAN ACTS depending on the circumsta
it
• E.g. eating something that is not yours, w/o owner’s permission renders it
• HUMAN ACTS too can become ACTS OF MAN when the VOLUNTARINESS, w
essential quality of an act, is lost.
5 MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACT
• 1) IGNORANCE- is basically either negative( mere absence of intellectual kn
positive ( presence of what is falsely supposed to be knowledge) or PRIVAT
knowledge that ought to be present)
• IGNORANCE is also classified to 3 broad classifications: ignorance in its obj
subject ( AGENT ), and ignorance in its result
TYPES OF IGNORANCE IN SO FAR AS THE SUBJECT
IS CONCERNED
• 1A) INVINCIBLE IGNORANCE- is the ignorance that can neither be surmoun
within the power and circumstance of an agent.
• E.g. a man inadvertently married his sister not knowing that they are close
• He was not informed by his family that he has a lost sister
• This made him not to doubt that he could possibly marry his sister
• There’s no way he can cancel their marriage due to that reason
1b) VINCIBLE IGNORANCE
• Ignorance that can be overcome with due diligence and effort on the part
• The agent must first be aware of his ignorance for him to have a chance to
• E.g. a student heard from his classmate that eating inside the classroom is
is unsure whether the prohibition is true or not. He is ignorant of the proh
• The doubt created by the statement of the classmate in his mind must hav
of his ignorance
• With due diligence in asking the proper authorities, he can dispel his ignor
1c) AFFECTED IGNORANCE
• Is basically a VINCIBLE IGNORANCE, but when he positively avoids learning
so that he can have an excuse whenever caught, instead of trying to overco
by asking the proper authorities, his ignorance is AFFECTED
2) CONCUPISCENCE
• Refers to the passions or bodily tendencies of man, e.g. love/ hatred/ joy/

• 2a) ANTECEDENT CONCUPISCENCE-when it spontaneously arise without b

and prior to any act of the will
• E.g. the anger evoked by a classmate’s offensive remark, the joy felt upon r
from a woman of your dreams
• It is not the fault of the agent since it is not willed by him
• Thus, it is an ACT OF MAN and therefore not IMPUTABLE/chargeable with
• 2b) CONSEQUENT CONCUPISCENCE-when the concupiscence is stimulated
antecedent concupiscence is deliberately retained, it becomes consequen
• Since it is practically ‘willed’ by the agent, it is considered a HUMAN ACT a
IMPUTABLE to him
• 3) FEAR- refers to the ‘agitation of the mind’ caused by an impending dang
• 3a) ACTIONS DONE FROM FEAR- in some cases, fear becomes the CAUSE o
• E.g. a student who is afraid of failing the examination resorted to cheating
• 3b) ACTIONS DONE WITH FEAR- in some cases, fear is NOT the CAUSE of an
accompanying circumstance
• E.g. a student who resorts to cheating for fear of failing is also afraid of bei
teacher
• 4) VIOLENCE-an external force done by an agent in order to compel or forc
something that he does not want to do
• E.g. PNPA cadet officer forced his/her subordinate cadet to do sexual act
• VIOLENCE can only force the body, the WILL can only be affected indirectly
• Hence if the WILL does not command the body to resist the violence, in eff
agrees in the act done under VIOLENCE.
• “AN ERROR NOT RESISTED IS APPROVED.”
• 5) HABIT- pertains to the facility of acting in a certain manner and is broug
frequently repeated acts
• When somebody keeps on telling falsehood, he develops the habit of lying