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Chap 1
The Start of the Modern
Electronics Era
Vacuum Discrete
Tubes Transistors
*Source: Gordon Moore’s Plenary address at the 2003 International Solid State
Circuits Conference.
5 Commendments
Moore’s Law : The number of transistors on a
chip doubles annually
Rock’s Law : The cost of semiconductor tools
doubles every four years
Machrone’s Law: The PC you want to buy will
always be $5000
Metcalfe’s Law : A network’s value grows
proportionately to the number of its users
squared
5 Commandments(cont.)
Wirth’s Law : Software is slowing faster
than hardware is accelerating
Further Reading: “5 Commandments”,
IEEE Spectrum December 2003, pp. 31-
35.
Moore’s law
Moore predicted that the number of transistors
that can be integrated on a die would grow
exponentially with time.
Amazingly visionary – million transistor/chip
barrier was crossed in the 1980’s.
16 M transistors (Ultra Sparc III)
140 M transistor (HP PA-8500)
1.7B transistor (Intel Montecito)
DEC PDP-11 CPU
HP PA7000 RISC
Motorola 68020
Motorola 68040
Toshiba MIPS
Intel 8088
Intel 80386
80386 (cont.)
Intel 80486
Intel Pentium
Intel Pentium 4 Prescott
Penryn and Nehalem
Penryn : 45nm Core 2
Architecture : Core 2
Extreme QX9650
Nehalem : Core i7
Intel CPU Evolution
Device Feature Size
Feature size
reductions enabled by
process innovations.
Smaller features lead
to more transistors
per unit area and
therefore higher
density.
Rapid Increase in Density of
Microelectronics
v1 A v1 i1 i 1
and
Circuit Theory Review: Current
Division (cont.)
Using the derived equations
with the indicated values,
3 k
i1 5 ma 3.00 mA
2 k 3 k
2 k
i 2 5 ma 2.00 mA
2 k 3 k
vo
1RS
vs
50 11 k
v s 0.718v s
1RS R1 50 11 k 1 k
and
v TH 0.718v s
Circuit Theory Review: Find the
Thevenin Equivalent Resistance
Problem: Find the Thevenin
equivalent resistance.
Solution:
Known Information and Given
Data: Circuit topology and values in
figure.
Unknowns: Thevenin equivalent
resistance RTH. Test voltage vx has been added to the
Approach: RTH is defined as the previous circuit. Applying vx and
equivalent resistance at the output solving for ix allows us to find the
terminals with all independent
sources in the network set to zero. Thevenin resistance as vx/ix.
Assumptions: None.
Analysis: Next slide…
Circuit Theory Review: Find the
Thevenin Equivalent Resistance (cont.)
Applying KCL,
i x i1 i1 G S v x
G1v x G1v x G S v x
G1 1 G S v x
vx 1 R1
Rth RS
i x G1 1 G S 1
R1 20 k
Rth RS 1 k 1 k 392 282
1 50 1
Circuit Theory Review: Find the Norton
Equivalent Circuit
Problem: Find the Norton
equivalent circuit.
Solution:
Known Information and Given
Data: Circuit topology and
values in figure.
Unknowns: Norton equivalent
A short circuit has been applied
short circuit current iN.
across the output. The Norton
Approach: Evaluate current current is the current flowing
through output short circuit. through the short circuit at the
Assumptions: None. output.
Analysis: Next slide…
Circuit Theory Review: Find the
Thevenin Equivalent Resistance (cont.)
Applying KCL,
i N i1 i1
G1v s G1v s
G1 1v s
v s 1
Short circuit at the output causes
R1 zero current to flow through RS.
Rth is equal to Rth found earlier.
50 1 vs
iN vs (2.55 mS)v s
20 k 392
Final Thevenin and Norton Circuits
Check of Results: Note that vTH=iNRth and this can be used to check the
calculations: iNRth=(2.55 mS)vs(282 ) = 0.719vs, accurate within
round-off error.
While the two circuits are identical in terms of voltages and currents at
the output terminals, there is one difference between the two circuits.
With no load connected, the Norton circuit still dissipates power!
Example : Circuit with a controlled
source
Applying KVL around the loop containing v s
yields
vs = isR1 + i2R2 = isR1 + (is + gmv1)R2 (1.33)
v1 = isR1 (1.34)
vs = is(R1 + R2 + gmR1R2) (1.35)
Req = vs / is = R1 + R2 (1+ gmR1) (1.36)
Req = 3KΩ+2KΩ[1+0.1S*3KΩ] = 605 kΩ. This
value is far larger than either R1 or R2.
iS
+
gmv 1
R
1
v
1
3k - 0.1 v
1
v
S i2
R
2
2k
R
2
2k
from : www.evilmadscientist.com
Joule Thief
555 LED Blink
Frequency Spectrum of Electronic
Signals
Nonrepetitive signals have continuous spectra often
occupying a broad range of frequencies
Fourier theory tells us that repetitive signals are
composed of a set of sinusoidal signals with distinct
amplitude, frequency, and phase.
The set of sinusoidal signals is known as a Fourier
series.
The frequency spectrum of a signal is the amplitude and
phase components of the signal versus frequency.
Frequencies of Some Common Signals
RF IF Audio
Mixer FM
Amplifier Amplifier Amplifier
Detector
and Filter and Filter
Local
Oscillator
vs = sin2000t V
Av = -5
Note: negative
gain is equivalent
to 180 degress of
phase shift.
Amplifier Frequency Response
Amplifiers can be designed to selectively amplify specific
ranges of frequencies. Such an amplifier is known as a filter.
Several filter types are shown below: