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Chapter 16
Digestive System
Lecture Outline
Seeley’s ESSENTIALS OF
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Eleventh Edition
Cinnamon VanPutte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo

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Functions of the Digestive System

• The digestive system is a complex set of organs, glands,

and ducts that work together to transform food into
nutrients for cells.
• Food is taken into the digestive system, where it is broken
down into smaller and smaller particles.
• Enzymes break the particles down into small molecules,
which are absorbed into the blood and transported all over
the body.

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Digestive System Functions 1

1. Ingestion and mastication – ingestion is the

consumption of solid or liquid food. Mastication is
chewing.
2. Propulsion and mixing - Propulsion is the movement of
food from one end of the digestive tract to the other.
Mixing is the movement of food back and forth in the
digestive tract to mix it with enzymes and facilitate
absorption.

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Digestive System Functions 2

3. Digestion and secretion - Digestion is the mechanical

and chemical breakdown of large molecules into smaller
molecules that can be absorbed. Secretion is the addition
of liquids, enzymes, and mucus to the ingested food.
4. Absorption - the movement of molecules out of the
digestive tract and into the blood or lymphatic system.
5. Elimination - Elimination is the removal of undigested
material, such as fiber from food, plus other waste
products from the body as feces.

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Digestive System

Figure 16.1
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Anatomy of the Digestive System 1

• The digestive system consists of the digestive tract, plus

specific associated organs.
• The digestive tract is also referred to as the GIT
(gastrointestinal tract)
• The tract is one long tube from the mouth to the anus.

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Anatomy of the Digestive System 2

The digestive tract consists of the:

• oral cavity (mouth)
• pharynx
• esophagus
• stomach
• small intestines
• large intestines
• anus

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Associated Organs

The digestive system includes some associated organs, not

directly in the digestive tract, that have ducts that lead into
the tract.
These associated organs are the:
• salivary glands
• liver
• gallbladder
• pancreas

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Layers of Digestive Tract Wall 1

The layers of the tract wall are also termed tunics.

1. Mucosa:
• innermost layer
• secretes mucus

2. Submucosa:
• above mucosa
• contains blood vessels, nerves, small glands

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Layers of Digestive Tract Wall 2

3. Muscularis:
• above submucosa

• longitudinal, circular, and oblique muscles

4. Serosa/adventitia:
• outermost layer

• If peritoneum is present called serosa

• If no peritoneum then called adventitia

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Digestive Tract Histology

Figure 16.3
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Peritoneum 1

• Visceral peritoneum - or serosa, is the serous membrane

that covers the organs.
• Parietal peritoneum - is the serous membrane that lines
the wall of the abdominal cavity

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Peritoneum 2

Mesenteries:
• connective tissue sheets that hold organs in place in the
abdominal cavity
Lesser omentum:
• mesentery connecting lesser curvature of stomach to liver
and diaphragm
Greater omentum:
• mesentery connecting greater curvature of stomach to
transverse colon and posterior body wall

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Peritoneum and Mesenteries

Figure 16.4
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Oral Cavity 1

• Lips - muscular structures, formed by the orbicularis oris

muscle and covered by skin.
• Cheeks - lateral walls of the oral cavity, within the cheeks
are the buccinator muscles which flatten the cheeks
against the teeth.
• Tongue - large, muscular organ that occupies most of the
oral cavity.
• The tongue moves food in the mouth and, in cooperation
with the lips and cheeks, holds the food in place during
mastication.

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Oral Cavity 3

Figure 16.5
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Teeth 1

• 32 teeth in normal adult

• Incisors, canine, premolars, molars, wisdom

• 20 primary (deciduous) teeth

• Each tooth has crown, cusp, neck, root

• The bulk of the tooth is formed by a cellular tissue called

dentin
• In the crown of the tooth, the dentin is covered by an
extremely hard, acellular enamel.

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Teeth 2

• Center of tooth is pulp cavity filled with a material called

pulp, which consists of blood vessels, nerves, and
connective tissue
• Teeth are held in place within pockets in the bone, called
alveoli
• Dental caries (cavities) are breakdown of enamel by acids
from bacteria

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Teeth 3

Figure 16.6
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Molar Tooth in Place in the Alveolar Bone

Figure 16.7
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Palate, Hard palate and Soft palate

Palate:
• roof of oral cavity

Hard palate:
• anterior part made of bone

Soft palate:
• posterior part consists of skeletal muscle and connective
tissue

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Salivary Glands 1

Produce saliva which is a mixture of serous (watery) and

mucous fluids
• Keeps the oral cavity moist

• Needed for normal speech

• Dissolves food particles so they can be tasted

• Protects against bacteria and neutralizes pH

• Begins the process of digestion

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Salivary Glands 2

Salivary Glands:
• Parotid - serous glands anterior to each ear.
• Submandibular - produce more serous than mucous
secretions, found along the inferior border of the mandible.
• Sublingual - produce primarily mucous and lie below the
mucous membrane in the floor of the oral cavity.

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Salivary Glands 3

Serous portion of saliva contains enzymes

• Amylase - Digestive enzyme that breaks down

carbohydrates

• Lysozyme - Enzymes that are active against bacteria

Mucous portion contains mucin for lubrication

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Salivary Glands 4

Figure 16.8
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Pharynx

Throat
Connects the mouth to the esophagus
It has three parts:
• nasopharynx
• oropharynx
• laryngopharynx

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Esophagus

Tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach

Transports food to the stomach
Joins stomach at cardiac opening
Heartburn:
• occurs when gastric juices regurgitate into esophagus
• caused by caffeine, smoking, or eating or drinking in
excess

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Swallowing

Voluntary phase:
• bolus (mass of food) formed in mouth and pushed into
oropharynx
Pharyngeal phase:
• swallowing reflex initiated when bolus stimulates receptors
in oropharynx
Esophageal phase:
• moves food from pharynx to stomach
Peristalsis:
• wave-like contractions moves food through digestive tract

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Events During the Three Phases of Swallowing

Figure 16.9
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Peristalsis

Figure
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16.10
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Stomach 1

• Located in abdomen

• Storage tank for food

• Can hold up to 2 liters of food

• Produces mucus, hydrochloric acid, protein digesting

enzymes
• Contains a thick mucus layer that lubricates and protects
epithelial cells on stomach wall from acidic pH (3)

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Regions of the Stomach

• The esophagus opens into the cardiac part.

• The fundus is to the left of, and superior to, the cardiac
part.
• The body is largest part of the stomach.

• The body turns to the right, creating a greater curvature

and a lesser curvature.
• The body narrows inferiorly to form the funnel-shaped
pyloric part of the stomach.

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Stomach 2

Muscularis has 3 layers:

• outer longitudinal, middle circular, and inner oblique to
produce churning action
Rugae:
• large folds that allow stomach to stretch

Chyme:
• paste-like substance that forms when food begins to be
broken down

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Stomach 3

Pyloric opening:
• opening between stomach and small intestine

Pyloric sphincter:
• thick, ring of smooth muscle around pyloric opening which
regulates movement of food into the small intestine

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Anatomy and Histology of the Stomach

(c) ©Victor Eroschenko

Figure 16.11
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Histology of the Stomach 1

• The mucosa forms tube-like gastric pits which are the

openings for the gastric glands.
• The epithelial cells of the stomach can be divided into five
groups: (1) surface mucous cells, (2) mucous neck cells,
(3) parietal cells, (4) endocrine cells, and (5) chief cells.
• All but the surface mucous cells are found within the
gastric glands.

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Epithelial Cells in the Stomach

• Surface mucous cells - produce mucus that coats and

protects the stomach
• mucous neck cells - produce mucus
• parietal cells - produce hydrochloric acid and intrinsic
factor
• endocrine cells – produce hormones and paracrine
molecules
• chief cells - produce pepsinogen, a precursor of the
protein-digesting enzyme pepsin

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Secretions of the Stomach 1

Hydrochloric acid
• Produces a pH of about 2.0 in the stomach.
• Kills microorganisms, activates pepsin.

Pepsin
• breaks covalent bonds of proteins to form smaller peptide
chains

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Secretions of the Stomach 2

Mucus
• A thick layer, which lubricates the mucosa of the stomach

• Protects mucosa from acidic chyme and pepsin

Intrinsic factor
• Binds with vitamin B12 making it more readily absorbed by
small intestine
• Vitamin B12 is important in DNA synthesis and red blood
cell production

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Regulation of Stomach Secretions 1

Parasympathetic stimulation, gastrin, and histamine increase

stomach secretions

1. Cephalic phase:
• Stomach secretions are initiated by sight, smell, taste, or food
thought

• Hydrochloric acid, pepsin, mucus, and intrinsic factor, gastrin and

histamine are released in the stomach

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Cephalic Phase of Stomach Control

Figure 16.12a
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Regulation of Stomach Secretions 2

2. Gastric phase:
• Food in stomach, partially digested proteins and distention of
stomach promote increase of secretion

• Peptides, produced by the action of pepsin on proteins, stimulate

the secretion of gastrin.

• Gastrin is carried through the blood back to the stomach stimulating

more secretion.

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Gastric Phase of Stomach Control

Figure 16.12b
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Regulation of Stomach Secretions 3

3. Intestinal phase:
• Inhibits secretion and movement in stomach

• Entrance of chyme into duodenum stimulates neuronal reflexes and

secretions of hormones

• The hormones secretin and cholecystokinin are released into the

blood by the duodenum and they inhibit secretion and movement in
the stomach.

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Intestinal Phase of Stomach Control

Figure 16.12c
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Movement in Stomach 1

Mixing waves:
• weak contraction
• thoroughly mix food to form chyme
Peristaltic waves:
• stronger contraction
• force chyme toward and through pyloric sphincter
Hormonal and neural mechanisms regulate stomach
secretions and movement
Stomach empties every 4 hours after regular meal, and 6 to
8 hours after high fatty meal

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Movement in the Stomach 2

Figure 16.13
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Small Intestine 1

• Measures 6 meters in length

• Major absorptive organ of the gastrointestinal tract

• Chyme takes 3 to 5 hours to pass through

• Contains enzymes to further breakdown food

• Contains secretions for protection against the acidity of

chyme

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Anatomy of Small Intestine 1

Duodenum:
• first part

• 25 cm long

• contains absorptive cells, goblet cells, granular cells,

endocrine cells
• contains microvilli and many folds

• contains bile and pancreatic ducts

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Anatomy of Small Intestine 2

Jejunum:
• second part
• 2.5 meters long
• Primary site of nutrient absorption
Ileum:
• third part
• 3.5 meters long

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Small Intestine 2

Figure 16.14
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Mucosa of the Small Intestine 1

The mucosa of the small intestine is simple columnar

epithelium with four major cell types.
1. Absorptive cells, which have microvilli, produce digestive
enzymes, and absorb digested food
2. Goblet cells, which produce a protective mucus
3. Granular cells, which may help protect the intestinal
epithelium from bacteria; and
4. Endocrine cells, which produce regulatory hormones.

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Mucosa of the Small Intestine 2

• The epithelial cells are located within tubular glands of the

mucosa, called intestinal glands or crypts of Lieberkühn,
at the base of the villi.
• Granular and endocrine cells are located in the bottom of
the glands.
• The submucosa of the duodenum contains mucous
glands, called duodenal glands, which open into the base
of the intestinal glands.

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Secretions of the Small Intestine

Secretions of mucus, ions, and water lubricate and protect

the intestinal wall from the acidic chyme and digestive
enzymes.
The epithelial cells in the small intestine have enzymes
bound to their free surfaces.
• Peptidases enzymatically breakdown proteins into amino
acids for absorption.
• Disaccharidases enzymatically breakdown disaccharides
into monosaccharides for absorption.

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Anatomy and Histology of the Duodenum

(d) ©Steve Gschmeissner/Science Source RF

Figure 16.15
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Movement in the Small Intestine 1

• Mixing and propulsion of chyme are the primary

mechanical events that occur in the small intestine.
• Peristaltic contractions along the length of the intestine
cause the chyme to move along the small intestine.
• Segmental contractions are propagated for only short
distances and mix intestinal contents.

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Movement in the Small Intestine 2

• The ileocecal sphincter at the juncture of the ileum and

the large intestine remains mildly contracted most of the
time.
• Peristaltic contractions reaching the ileocecal sphincter
from the small intestine cause the sphincter to relax and
allow chyme to move from the small intestine into the
cecum.
• The ileocecal valve prevents movement from the large
intestine back into the ileum.

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Segmental Contractions in the Small Intestine

Figure 16.16
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Liver Anatomy 1

Weighs about 3 lbs.

Located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen under
the diaphragm
Consists of right, left, caudate, and quadrate lobes
Porta:
• gate where blood vessels, ducts, nerves enter and exit
• Receives blood from the hepatic artery and hepatic portal
vein

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Liver

Figure 16.17
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Liver Anatomy 2

Lobules:
• divisions of liver with portal triads at corners
Portal triad:
• contain branches of hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein,
hepatic duct
Hepatic cords:
• between center margins of each lobule
• separated by hepatic sinusoids

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Liver Anatomy 3

Hepatic sinusoids:
• contain phagocytic cells that remove foreign particles from
blood
Central vein:
• center of each lobule
• where mixed blood flows to form hepatic veins

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Liver Ducts

Hepatic duct:
• transports bile out of liver
Common hepatic duct:
• formed from left and right hepatic duct
Cystic duct:
• joins common hepatic duct
• drains gallbladder
Common bile duct:
• formed from common hepatic duct and cystic duct

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Bile and Pancreatic Secretions

Figure 16.18
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Functions of the Liver

Digestive and excretory functions

Stores and processes nutrients
Detoxifies harmful chemicals
Synthesizes new molecules
Secretes 700 milliliters of bile each day
Bile:
• dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid and breaks down fats

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Control of Bile Secretion and Release

Figure 16.19
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Pancreas 1

• Located posterior to stomach in inferior part of left upper

quadrant
• Head near midline of body
• Tail extends to left and touches spleen
• Endocrine tissues have pancreatic islets that produce
insulin and glucagon
• Exocrine tissues produce digestive enzymes that travel
through ducts to duodenum

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Pancreatic Secretions 1

The major protein-digesting enzymes are:

1. Trypsin
2. Chymotrypsin
3. Carboxypeptidase

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Pancreatic Secretions 2

• Pancreatic amylase continues the polysaccharide

digestion that began in the oral cavity.
• The pancreatic enzyme lipase is a lipid-digesting enzyme.
• The pancreatic nuclease enzymes degrade DNA and RNA
to their component ucleotides.

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Duodenum and Pancreas

Figure 16.20
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Control of Pancreatic Secretions

Figure 16.21
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Large Intestine 1

Function is to absorb water from indigestible food and create

compact feces
Contains cecum, colon, rectum, anal canal
Cecum:
• joins small intestine at ileocecal junction
• has appendix attached
Appendix:
• 9 cm structure that is often removed

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Large Intestine 2

Colon:
• 1.5 meters long
• contains ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid
regions
Rectum:
• straight tube that begins at sigmoid colon and ends at anal
canal

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Large Intestine 3

Anal canal:
• last 2 to 3 cm of digestive tract
Food takes 18 to 24 hours to pass through large intestine
Feces are product of water, indigestible food, and microbes
Microbes synthesize vitamin K

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Large Intestine

(b) ©CNRI/SPL/Science Source

Figure 16.22
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Functions of the Large Intestine

• Feces formation is due to absorption of water and salts,

secretion of mucus, and action of microorganisms.
• The colon stores the feces until defecation.

• Every 8 to 12 hours strong contractions, called mass

movements propel the colon contents toward the anus.
• Movement of feces into the rectum distends the rectal wall
and stimulates the defecation reflex.

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Digestive Process 1

1. Digestion:
• Chemical and mechanical breakdown of food
2. Absorption:
• Most absorption occurs in the duodenum and jejunum,
although some occurs in the stomach and ileum
3. Transport:
• moves food through digestive tract, includes swallowing
and peristalsis

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Digestion

Figure 16.23
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Digestion of Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Proteins

Figure 16.24
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Carbohydrate Digestion

• Polysaccharides split into disaccharides by salivary and

pancreatic amylases
• Disaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides by
disaccharidases on the surface of intestinal epithelium
• Glucose is absorbed by cotransport with Na+ into the
intestinal epithelium
• Glucose is carried by the hepatic portal vein to the liver
and enters most cells by facilitated diffusion

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Transport of Glucose Across the Intestinal Epithelium

Figure 16.25
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Lipid Digestion 1

• Lipase breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and

monoglycerides.
• Bile salts surround fatty acids and monoglycerides to form
micelles.
• Micelles attach to the plasma membranes of intestinal
epithelial cells, and the fatty acids and monoglycerides
pass by simple diffusion into the intestinal epithelial cells.

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Lipid Digestion 2

• Within the intestinal epithelial cell, the fatty acids and

monoglycerides are converted to triglycerides.
• Proteins coat the triglycerides to form chylomicrons, which
move out of the intestinal epithelial cells by exocytosis.
• The chylomicrons enter the lacteals of the intestinal villi
and are carried through the lymphatic system to the blood.

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Transport of Lipids Across the intestinal Epithelium

Figure 16.26
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Lipoproteins 1

• Lipids are packaged into lipoproteins to allow transport in

the lymph and blood.
• Lipoproteins are molecules that are part water soluble and
part lipid soluble.
• Since lymph and blood contain water and lipids are not
water soluble, lipoproteins are necessary for transport.
• Lipoproteins include chylomicrons, low-density
lipoproteins (LDL), and high-density lipoproteins (HDL).

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Lipoproteins 2

Figure 16.27
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Protein Digestion 1

• Pepsin is a protein-digesting enzyme secreted by the

stomach.
• The pancreas secretes the protein digesting enzymes
trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase into the small
intestine in an inactive state.
• In the small intestines these enzymes are activated.

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Protein Digestion 2

• In the small intestine, other enzymes termed peptidases,

bound to the microvilli of the intestinal epithelium further
break down small peptides into tripeptides.
• Absorption of tripeptides, dipeptides, or individual amino
acids occurs through the intestinal epithelial cells by
various cotransport mechanisms.

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Transport of Amino Acids Across the Intestinal
Epithelium

Figure 16.28
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Water and Minerals

• Water can move across the intestinal wall in either

direction
• The movement depends on osmotic pressures
• 99% of water entering intestine is absorbed
• Minerals are actively transported across wall of small
intestine

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Fluid Volumes in the Digestive Tract

Figure 16.29
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