Vehicle Dynamics (MV6131)

Longitudinal Dynamics
Part-1- Traction Limit Acceleration

Department of Motor Vehicle Engineering

Defence University, College of Engineering
2019-20 A.Y Semester I
Chapter- Out-Line
• Road Loads
• Normal Loads (Wf and Wr) on axle
• Load transfer during Acceleration
• Maximum Tractive Effort
• Rolling Resistance
• Aerodynamic Forces
• Traction-limit acceleration • Braking Performance:
• FWD, RWD AWD (front & rear skid)Acceleration • Braking Characteristics of a 2-Axle Vehicle
• Optimal tractive effort • Load Transfer during Braking
• Transvers weight shift • Optimal Braking Performance
• Power Limited Acceleration • Braking Efficiency and Stooping Distance
• Engine and transmission characteristics • Skid(Slip) Condition & Braking
• Acceleration time and distance • Safety Features
• Operating Fuel Economy • Anti-Lock Braking System( ABS)
• Safety Feature ( Limited slip axle & Traction Control) • Pitch Plane Models
Vehicle Loads
• In Newtonian dynamics, the forces acting on a system of connected rigid bodied can be divided

Forces acting on the system

Internal Forces External Forces

(acting between connected bodies) (acting from outside of the system)

Contact Force
Body Force
(tractive force, Normal Force, Rolling
Resistance Force at the tireprint) (gravitational force, Aerodynamic Forces)

• External forces and moments are called Load

Axle Loads Static Loads on level Ground

Low speed acceleration
Vehicle Loads on Grade
Loads
Aerodynamic
Road Loads Rolling Resistance
Axle Loads
• Weight of the Vehicle (W)
• acting at its C.G, Its magnitude is mg
• On Grade it may have 2 components,
• Cosine component (W Cos θ) which is perpendicular to the road surface
• Sine component (Rg=W sin θ) parallel to the road
• D’ Alembert Force (Equivalent inertia force)
• Its magnitude is where a is the acceleration along the road
• Acting at the C.G. opposite to the direction of acceleration y
RA
• Wheel Normal Force (Wf and Wr)
• Representing dynamic weight carried on front and rear wheels
B RdZ
• Tractive Forces F (Ff and Fr) Rrf
Ff
• Acting in the tire contact patch parallel to direction of acceleration Rdx
l1 Rrr A
• Rolling Resistance (Rrf and Rrr) l2
hd x
Wf Fr
• Acting in the tire contact patch opposite to direction of acceleration
• Aerodynamic Force (RA) Wr

• Acting on the body of the vehicle opposite to direction of ace. h a height from the ground
o Drawbar Load Rd(Rdx and RdZ)
• when the vehicle is towing a trailer, Are horizontal & vertical forces
Tractive Force
• The equation of motion along the longitudinal axis x of the vehicle is expressed by
• ∑Fx=ma
• Total Tractive Effort (F) and acceleration (a)
2
d x W
m 2
= a= F f + F r − R rf − R rr − R a − R d ± Rg
dt g
Grade Force

Drawbar Force

Eq-1
Aerodynamic Force

Rear Wheel Rolling Resistance

• Where F= R=
Two limiting factors to the max. Tractive effort Front Wheel Rolling Resistance

Rear wheel Tractive Force

drive axle or axles power plant & Front Wheel Tractive Force
Transmission
- Coeff. of road adhesion
- Normal load Inertia Force
The smaller of these two determines the performance potential of the vehicle
Normal Load On the Axle
• Parked Car on the level Road
• The two normal force Wf and Wr can be determined l2 l1
using planar static equilibrium Equations
∑ 𝐹 𝑍 =0 ∑ 𝑀𝑌 =0
and

• Applying the Equilibrium equations.

h
• (1) B A
• (2)
Wr W Wf
• (3)
• Normal Load on the Front Axle, Wf , using Eq (2) Note That:

( ) ( )
- Wf refers the summation of the norm load on the two front wheels
𝑙2 1 𝑙2 - Wr refers the summation of the norm load on the two rear wheels
𝑊 𝑓 = 𝑊 On one𝑊
Wheel𝑓 = 𝑊
𝑙 𝐴
2 𝑙
• Normal Load on Rear Axle, Wr, using Eq(3)
𝑊𝑟=
𝑙1
𝑙 ( ) 𝑊 𝑊
On one Wheel
𝑟𝐵
1
2 ( )𝑊
𝑙1
𝑙
 Longitudinal Mass Center Determination
• The position of mass center (C) can be determined experimentally.
• To determine the longitudinal position of C, we should measure
• The total weight of the car
• The force under the front or the rear wheels l2 l1
• Assuming
• the force under the two front wheels is 2Wf ,
• the position of the C.G. from the front axle is h
B A
• which is calculated by static equilibrium conditions

∑ 𝑀𝑌 =0𝐴
2Wr W 2Wf

𝑊𝑟=
𝑙1
𝑙 ( )𝑊
When the Axle Load is considered
Height of Mass Center Determination
• To determine the height of mass center C, we should measure
• the force under the front or rear wheels while the car is on an inclined surface
• Experimental Steps
• The car is parked on a level surface such that the front wheels are on a scale jack.
• The front wheels will be locked and anchored to the jack,
while the rear wheels will be left free to turn.
l2
• The jack lifts the front wheels and the required vertical
force applied by the jacks is measured by a load cell
• The car makes an angle φ with the horizontal plane.
• The slope angle φ is measurable using level meters

2Wr
Height of Mass Center Determination
• Assuming the force under the front wheels is 2Wf ,
• the height of the mass center can be calculated by static equilibrium conditions
• Applying the equilibrium equations
•
•

l1 𝜙h
𝑙 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 − ( h − 𝑅 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 𝜙R l2
C 𝜙
𝜙
l2 𝑙1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 + ( h − 𝑅 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙

𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
𝑊 𝑟 ( 𝑙2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜙+𝑅𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜙 ) −𝑊 𝑓 ( 𝑙1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜙 − 𝑅𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜙 ) h𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
h=
𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
2Wr h=𝑅+ ( 𝑊 𝑟 𝑙2 −𝑊 𝑓 𝑙1
) 𝐶𝑜𝑡 𝜙 2Wr
Height mass center determination
• Example
• A car with the following specifications
• m = 2000 kg 2Ff = 18000N φ = 30deg l = 110 cm
1 l = 230 cm R=
30cm
• Solution
• The Height
𝑊 𝑙 of C.G.𝑙
h=𝑅+ ( −𝑊
𝑟 2
𝑊
𝑓 1
) 𝐶𝑜𝑡 𝜙 l2

30

h=12.6 𝑐𝑚

2Wr
Normal Load On the Axle
• Parked Car on Inclined Road
• The two normal force Wf and Wr can be determined using planar static equilibrium
Equations
∑ 𝐹 =0
𝑥 ∑ 𝐹 =0
𝑍 ∑ 𝑀 =0
𝑌
𝑙1
• Applying the Equilibrium equations. 𝑙2
• (1)
A
• (2)
• (3)
• (4) Wcos ϕ
• Normal Load on the Front Axle, Wf , using Eq (3) W sin ϕ
𝑊 B
𝑊 𝑓 = ( 𝑙 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜙 − h𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 ) 2Wr
𝑙
• Normal Load on Rear Axle, Wr, using Eq(4)
𝑊
𝑊 𝑟 = ( 𝑙 1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜙+ h𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 )
𝑙
Maximum Inclination Angle For 2WBraking
• By increasing the inclination angle,
• The normal force under the front tires of a parked car decreases and
• The normal force and braking force under the rear tires increase
• The limit for increasing φ (Tilting Angle)
• is where the weight vector W goes through the contact point of the rear tire with the ground
• There is a specific angle φM at which the braking force Fx2 will saturate and cannot increase any more .

• At this maximum angle, the braking force is proportional to the normal force F z2
• For rear Wheel Braking Max. inclination for Rear Wheel Braking
• From Equation (1) 𝜇𝑊
𝐹 𝑥 2=𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 𝜇𝑊 𝑟 =𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 ( 𝑙1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜙+h𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 ) =𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
𝑙
𝜇 𝑙1
• Divided both side by Cos φ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 𝑀 , 𝑟 =
𝑙− 𝜇 h
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
=( )
𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
+ ( )
𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 𝑙 𝑙 ( )( )
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 𝜇𝑙 1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜙 𝜇h 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙= 𝜇 𝑙 1 + 𝜇 h 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 1 −
𝜇h 𝜇 𝑙 1
𝑙
=
𝑙 ( ) 𝜇 𝑙2
Max. inclination for Front Wheel Braking 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 𝑀 , 𝑓 =
𝑙+𝜇 h
Maximum Inclination Angle For 2 W Braking
• Comparing φMf and φMr shows that

( )[ ]
𝜙𝑀 𝜇 𝑙2 𝑙−h𝜇 𝜙𝑀 𝑙2
𝑓
= 𝑓

𝜙𝑀 𝑟
𝜇 𝑙1 𝑙+h 𝜇 𝜙𝑀 𝑟
𝑙1

• When the Vehicle is Parking on Uphill

• If l1 > l2 (the C.G. shifted towards rear axle) then φMf < φMr and
• A rear brake is more effective than a front brake on uphill parking as long as φ Mr is less than the tilting
angle, φMr < tan−1 ()
• At the tilting angle,
• the weight vector passes
𝑊 through the contact point of the rear wheel with the ground𝑙 1
𝑊 = 0 𝑊 = ( 𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜙+ h𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 ) =0 𝑙1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜙=− h𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 tan 𝜙=−
• 𝑟 𝑟
𝑙 1 h
• When the vehicle is Parking on downhill
• If l1 < l2 (the C.G. shifted towards front axle) then φMf > φMr
• A Front brake is more efficient than a Rear brake φMf > φMr as long as φMf is < the tilting angle, tan−1 ()
 Maximum Inclination Angle For 4 W Braking
• Consider a four-wheel brake car, parked uphill as shown in Figure
• In these conditions, there will be two brake forces Fx1 on the front wheels and two brake
forces Fx1 on the rear wheels
• At the ultimate angle φ = φM , all wheels will begin to slide simultaneously and therefore
• and
𝑙1
• To Find the Maximum Inclination Angle
𝐹 𝑋 1 + 𝐹 𝑋 2=𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
• 𝜇𝑊 𝑙2
𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙=
𝑙
( 𝑙 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜙 − h𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙+𝑙 1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜙 +h𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 )
𝜇
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙= ( 𝑙 +𝑙 )
𝑙 2 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙=𝜇

2Wr
Normal Load On the Axle
• Accelerating Car on the level Road with Low speed
• When a car is speeding with acceleration a on a level road as shown in Fig.
• The vertical forces under the front and rear wheels can be determined

∑ 𝐹 𝑥=0 ∑ 𝐹 𝑍 =0 ∑ 𝑀𝑌 =0
• Applying the above Equations
𝑙2 𝑙1

∑ 𝐹 𝑥=0 𝑊 ( )
𝑎
𝑔
∑ 𝐹 𝑍 =0 B A

∑ 𝑀𝑌𝐵=0 2Wr

𝑊 𝑓 𝑙+𝑊
𝑎
𝑔 ( )
𝑊 =
𝑊
− 𝑊 𝑙2 =0 𝑓 𝑙
𝑙 2
−h
𝑎
𝑔( ) Static Load Dynamic Load

( ) ( )
±
𝑊
( )
h
𝑎

∑ 𝑀𝑌𝐴=0
𝑎
𝑊 𝑟 𝑙+𝑊 − 𝑊 𝑙2 =0 𝑊 𝑟 = 𝑊 𝑙1 +h 𝑎 𝑙 𝑔
𝑔 𝑙 𝑔
 Maximum acceleration on a level road
• The maximum acceleration of a car is proportional to the friction under its tires.
• Assume the friction coefficients at the front and rear tires are equal and all tires reach their
maximum tractions at the same time
𝐹 𝑋 1 =± 𝜇𝑊 𝑓 𝐹 𝑋 2=± 𝜇𝑊 𝑟
• For All wheel Drive Vehicle 𝑙2 𝑙1

∑ 𝐹 𝑥=0
B
𝑊 ( )
𝑎
𝑔
A

2Wr

( )|
4 𝑊𝐷
𝑎  the maximum acceleration and deceleration depend directly on the friction
=± 𝜇
𝑔 𝑀𝑎𝑥
coefficient.
Maximum acceleration on a level road
• For Single Axle RWD 𝑙2 𝑙1

∑•𝐹From
=0
𝑥 =0
Traction Limit Acceleration
B
𝑊 ( )
𝑎
𝑔
A
𝐹 =± 𝜇𝑊
𝑋2 [ ( )]
𝑟 𝜇
𝑊
𝑙
𝑙1 +h
𝑎
𝑔
=𝑊
𝑎
𝑔 ( ) 2Wr
𝜇 𝜇 𝑎 𝑎
𝑙1 + h =
𝑙 𝑙 𝑔 𝑔 Tilting Condition
𝜇
𝑙
𝑙1=
𝑎
𝑔
1− (
𝜇
𝑙
h )
𝑎
𝑔
=
[ 𝜇
𝑙 −𝜇 h
(]𝑙1 )
𝑊 𝑓=
• The Front Wheels can leave the ground ()
𝑊
𝑙 (𝑎
𝑙2 −h =0
𝑔 ) 𝑙 2=¿h 𝑎

( )|
𝑅𝑊𝐷
𝜇 𝑙1 𝑔
𝑎
( )|
𝑅𝑊𝐷
= 𝑎 𝑙2 Max. Acceleration at which the
𝑔 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑙 −𝜇h ≤ front wheel are still on the road
𝑔 h
Maximum acceleration on a level road
• For Single Axle FWD 𝑙2 𝑙1
=0
∑•𝐹From
𝑥 =0
Traction Limit Acceleration 𝑊 ( )
𝑎
𝑔
B A
𝐹 =± 𝜇𝑊
𝑋1 [ ( )]
𝑓
𝜇
𝑊
𝑙
𝑙2 −h
𝑎
𝑔
=𝑊
𝑎
𝑔 ( ) 2Wr
𝜇 𝜇 𝑎 𝑎
𝑙2 − h =
𝑙 𝑙 𝑔 𝑔 Tilting Condition
𝜇
𝑙
𝑙2 =
𝑎
𝑔
1+ (
𝜇
𝑙
h )
𝑎
𝑔
=
[ 𝜇
𝑙+𝜇 h
(]𝑙2 )
𝑊 𝑓=
• The Front Wheels can leave the ground ()
𝑊
𝑙 ( 𝑎
𝑙1 +h =0
𝑔 ) 𝑙1 =¿− h 𝑎

( )|
𝐹𝑊𝐷
𝜇𝑙2 𝑔
𝑎
( )|
𝐹𝑊𝐷
= 𝑎 𝑙 1 Max. Acceleration at which the
𝑔 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑙+ 𝜇h ≤− front wheel are still on the road
𝑔 h
 FWD Vs RWD 𝑎
𝑔 | [𝑅𝑊𝐷
=
𝜇
(𝑙 )
𝑙− 𝜇 h 1 ] 𝑎
𝑔 | [
𝐹𝑊𝐷
=
𝜇
]
(𝑙 )
𝑙+ 𝜇 h 2

• Let us take
1.20
RWD FWD

1.00
FWD RWD
0.80

• For typical Vehicle loading 0.60

a/g
• Ranging from 0.4-0.6 0.40

• For RWD 0.20

• Acceleration varies between 0.53 and 0.8 g 0.00

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 L1/L
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
• For FWD 1.25

• Acceleration varies between 0.32 and 0.48 g 1.05

RWD FWD

• This shows that for normal acceleration condition in a single 0.85

0.65
drive higher level of maximum acceleration can be achieved

a/g
0.45

with RWD. 0.25

• Thus sport cars are almost always RWD 0.05

• Passenger cars are usually in the range 0.4 < (a 1/g) < 0.6, with -0.15
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

L2/L
Normal Load on Axles (Wf&Wr) y
RA

• Accelerating car on uphill Inclined Surface

Rrf B RdZ
• Taking Moment about front and Rear Wheel Ff
Rdx
• Assume cosθ≈1 l1 Rrr A
l2
hd x
• To find Wf ,Taking moment about A Wf Fr

Wr

Wf=
1
𝑙 [ w
w 𝑙2 − Ra h a − Rd ha − ah ∓ wsinθh
g ] Eq-2

Up hill –ve
Down hill +ve

• To find Wr ,Taking moment about B w

−W r . 𝑙+ R a .h a + R d . hd +wsinθ . h+ a . h+ wcosθ . 𝑙1=0
g

W r=
1
𝑙[ w
w 𝑙 1+ R a h a+ Rd ha + ah ∓ wsinθh
g ] Eq-3
Load Transfer during Acceleration
• Rearranging equation 2 and 3 and using eq-1
• Assume h=ha=hd and Wsinθ=Rg
• Load on Front Wheel
Wf=
1
𝑙 [ w
W 𝑙 2 − R a ha − R d h a − ah ∓ Wsinθh
g ] 𝑙2
Wf= W −
𝑙
h
𝑙 [ w
R a + Rd + a ∓ R g
g ]
𝑙2 h
Wf= W − [F − Rr]
• Load on Rear Wheel 𝑙 𝑙 Eq-4

1
𝑙 [ W
W r= W 𝑙1 + R a ha + R d h a + ah ∓ Wsinθh
g ] W r=
𝑙1
𝑙
h
[ w
W + Ra + R d + a ∓ R g
𝑙 g ]
𝑙2 h
W r= W + [F − Rr]
𝑙 𝑙 Eq-5
• From Eq 4 and 5,
• The 1st term on the RHS represents the static load on the axle when the vehicle is at rest on the level ground
• The 2nd term on the RHS represents the dynamic component of the load (dynamic load transfer)
• As the vehicle accelerate the Front Wheel loose some amount of its load and Rear Wheel gain equal amount of
load for C.G located at the mid point of wheel base
Maximum Tractive Effort
• The tractive effort can be limited by either
• Power Plant and Tire (ability of the tire to take that force)
• , equivalent to (coulomb fiction)
• For Front Wheel drive
• For Rear Wheel drive
• Now
• substitute Wf and Wr from Eq 4 & 5 in the above relation and
• Rr=frW, fr is friction coefficient which is the same for both front and rear wheel
• For Front Wheel Drive
F max =𝜇 W f = μ ( 𝑙2
𝑙
h
W − [ F max − R r ]
𝑙 ) F max =
μW ( 𝑙2 + f r h ) / 𝑙
1+ μh/ 𝑙
=
μW ( 𝑙2 + f r h )
𝑙+ μh

• For Rear Wheel Drive

𝜇 W ( 𝑙1 − 𝑓 𝑟 h ) / 𝑙 𝜇 W ( 𝑙1 − 𝑓 𝑟 h )
F max =𝜇 W r= μ
𝑙1
𝑙
h
(
W + [ F max − R r ]
𝑙 ) F max =
1 − μh /𝑙
=
𝑙 − μh
Maximum Acceleration
• Front Wheel Drive:
• If the tractive force are applied to only the front wheel
Wf=
1
𝑙 [ w
W 𝑙 2 − R a ha − R d h a − ah ∓ Wsinθh
g ]
• Considering Grade, rolling and aerodynamic resistances Wf= W −
𝑙2
𝑙
h
[
𝑙
w
]
R a + Rd + a ∓ R g
g

( )
𝑙2 h μW ( 𝑙2 + f r h ) / 𝑙 𝑙2 h
F max =𝜇 W f = μ W − [ F max − R r ] F max = Wf= W − [F − Rr]
𝑙 𝑙 1+ μh/ 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙

|
μW ( 𝑙2 + f r h ) / 𝑙 𝐹𝑊𝐷
μ ( 𝑙2 + f r h ) / 𝑙 μ ( 𝑙2 + f r h )
F max =𝑊
𝑎
𝑔
=( )1+ μh/ 𝑙
𝑎
𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑥
=
1+ μh / 𝑙
=
𝑙 + μh

• Rear Wheel Drive

• If the tractive force are applied to only the rear wheel
1
𝑙 [ W
W 𝑙1 + R a ha + R d h a + ah ∓ Wsinθh
W r=
g ]
F max =𝜇 W r= μ (𝑙1
𝑙
h
W + [ F max − R r ]
𝑙 ) F max =
𝜇 W ( 𝑙1 − 𝑓 𝑟 h ) / 𝑙
1 − μh /𝑙
W r =
𝑙1
𝑙
W +
h
𝑙
R a + R d +
w
g[a ∓ Rg ]
𝑙2 h
W r= W + [F − Rr]

|
μW ( 𝑙1 + f r h ) / 𝑙 𝑅𝑊𝐷
μ ( 𝑙 1+ f r h ) /𝑙 μ ( 𝑙1 + f r h )
( ) 𝑎
𝑎 𝑙 𝑙
F max =𝑊 = = =
𝑔 1 − μh /𝑙 𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 − μh/ 𝑙 𝑙 − μh
 FWD Vs RWD
• Let us take
1.40

1.20

FWD RWD 1.00

RWD`

0.80
a/g
• For typical Vehicle loading 0.60

• Ranging from 0.4-0.6 0.40

FWD
0.20
• For RWD
0.00
• Acceleration varies between 0.53 and 0.8 g 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
l2 /(l1 +l2 )
• For FWD
• Acceleration varies between 0.32 and 0.48 g
• This shows that for normal acceleration condition in a single drive higher level of maximum acceleration
can be achieved with RWD.
• Thus sport cars are almost always RWD
All wheels Drive (AWD)
• Tractive force of the vehicle are distributed on all its wheel under all driving condition
• The tractive forces may be
• distributed equally or
• have some bias towards a certain axis (front or rear)
• Driven with one axis (either rear or front) until the wheel spinning is detected, there is torque transfer to the other wheel when the
wheel spine
• Let assume that the tractive torque is distributed
• A certain ratio of Kf of total torque goes to the front axle
• The remainder (1- Kf ) of the total torque goes to the rear axle
Kf 1− K f
F f = K f F = K f ( F f + Fr ) Ff = F FR= Ff
1− K f r Kf

• Total weight is distributed as, considering rolling, aerodynamic and grade resistance forces
( F ¿ ¿ f + F r )− ( R r + R a ± R g ) =ma ¿
 All Wheels Drive (AWD)
• Front Skid Condition
( F ¿ ¿ f + F r )− ( R r + R a ± R g ) =m a❑ ¿ ( F ¿¿ f +
( 1−Kf
Kf )
F f )− ( Rr + Ra ± R g ) =m a F ¿
( (
F f 1+
1−Kf
Kf )) − ( Rr + Ra ± R g ) =m a F

μ W f 1+
( ( 1−Kf
Kf )) − ( R r + R a ± R g )= m a F μ ( 1
𝑙
[W 𝑙2 − Ra h a − ma F h ∓ R g h ] )( (
1+
1− K f
Kf )) − ( R r + R a ± R g ) =m a F

μ ( 1
𝑙
[W 𝑙2 − Ra h a ∓ R g h ] )( ( 1+
1−Kf
Kf )) − ( Rr + Ra ± R g ) =
( (
μh
𝑙
1+
1− K f
Kf ) )
+1 m a F

μ ( 1
𝑙
[ W l 2 − Ra h a ∓ R g h ] )( (
1+
1−Kf
Kf )) − ( R r + R a ± Rg )
𝑎
|= The Max acc achieved on front tires Under skid condition
( ( ) )
𝑔 𝐹 μh 1− K f
1+ +1 m
l Kf

μ ( l𝑙 )(1+( 1−KK ))
2 f
l2
( )
𝑎
|= f
When Ignoring Ra, Rg and Rr 𝑎
| =
μ
𝑙
g
when Kf =1
( )
𝑔 𝐹 μh 1− K f
1+ +1 𝑔 𝐹 𝑊𝐷 μh
𝑙 Kf 1+
𝑙
 All Wheels Drive (AWD)
• Rear Skid Condition
( F ¿ ¿ f + F r )− ( R r + R a ± R g ) =m a❑ ¿ ( Kf
1− K f )
F r +( F¿ ¿ r )− ( R r + R a ± R g ) =m a r ¿ F r 1+
( Kf
1−Kf )
− ( Rr + R a ± R g ) =m a r

μ W r 1+
( Kf
1− K f )
− ( R r + R a ± Rg )= m ar μ ( 1𝑙 [W 𝑙 + R h +m a h ∓ R h ] )(1+ 1−KK ) − ( R + R
1 a a r g
f

f
r a ± R g )= m ar

μ ( 1
𝑙
[ W 𝑙1 + Ra h a ∓ R g h ] )( 1+
Kf
1−Kf )
− ( R r + R a ± R g)= −
𝜇h
𝑙
1+
Kf
1−Kf (
+ 1 m ar
( ) )
μ ( 1𝑙 [ W l − R a ha ∓ R g h ] )(1 + 1 −KK ) − ( R + R
f
± Rg)
The Max acc achieved on Rear tires Under skid condition
|=
1 r a
𝑎 f

( ) )
𝑔 μh
( Kf
𝑅
− 1+ +1 m
𝑙 1− K f

( l𝑙 )(1 + 1 −KK ) g
1 f

( l𝑙 ) g
μ
𝑎
|
1
=
f μ
𝑔 𝑅

( −
μh
1+ (Kf
) ) +1
When Ignoring Ra, Rg and Rr 𝑎
| =
When Kf =0
l 1− K f 𝑔 𝑅𝑊𝐷
( 1−
μh
l )
All Wheels Drive (AWD)
• The denominator comes closer to Zero, which yield higher value for aR
RWD
( )(
l
μ 1
𝑙
1+
Kf
) ar
l1
μ
𝑙 ( ) When Kf =0
ar 1−Kf Ignoring =
g
( )
= μh
( ) )
g
(
μh Kf Ra, Rg and Rr 1−
− 1+ +1 l
l 1−Kf

FWD

aF
μ ( )( (
l2
𝑙
1+
1− K f
Kf )) Ignoring aF
μ
l2
𝑙 ( )
= Ra, Rg and Rr = when Kf =1
( )
g μh 1− K f g μh
1+ +1 1+
l Kf l

• This indicate increased possibility that a front skid will happen

Will compare with first
braking condition
• If aF<aR, the front tire will skid first,
• If aF>aR, the Rear tire will skid first
All Wheels Drive (AWD)
• Sensitivity of the tire skid (whether the front or rear skid first) to the coefficient of friction
• The vehicle is to be driven on various type of surfaces
• High coefficient of friction (concrete surface)
• Low coefficient of friction (icy or slippery road)
• When Kf=0.5(Fig. on left side ) Rear skid quite possible at lower coefficient of friction
• When Kf=0.6 (Fig. on right side) front axle skid will occur for all surfaces
1.4 1.4
l2 =62, h=20, L=112 and Kf=0.5 l1 =50, h=20, L=112 and Kf=0.6
1.2 1.2
1.0
aR/g
1.0
0.8 0.8 aR/g
a/g

0.6

a/g
0.6 aF/g
0.4 aF/g
0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
-0.2 -0.2
Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of Friction
 Optimal Tractive Effort
• Maximum tractive force effort is obtained when all wheels skid at the same time
• To achieve this, Torque distribution b/n the front and rear axle must follow the load on each axle
• If the front wheel experience 40% of vehicle load under a certain driving condition, the maximum tractive
effort is achieved if the motor toque is distributed such that 40% of it goes to front axle
• 3 factors affect the torque distribution b/n the front and rear axles
• Loading condition of the wheels (fully loaded Vs light loaded) case
• Causes movement of C.G of the vehicle
• Optimal distribution of load will not be the same as another condition
• Coefficient of friction
• Varies considerably in dry and wet surfaces, surface condition and finishing
• safety consideration &/or handling objective
• Feed back control system for skid axle (front axle)
• Distribute motor torque to both axles according to the axle load distribution
 Optimal Tractive Effort
• The maximum tractive force occurs
• When both Ff and Fr approach their skid (or max value) simultaneously
• This can achieved only
• if we set
• The total friction force is
F=F f + F r= μW f + μ W r =μ ( W f + W r )

• At a point where aF and aR are closed each other

• At kf = 0.4196 both acceleration values are the same (0.75g)
• Maximum Acceleration is achieved
( F ¿ ¿ f + F r )− ( R r + R a ± R g ) =m a❑ ¿ μmg cosθ − ( Rr + Ra ± R g ) =m a❑

a
= μ cosθ − ( R r + R a ± R g )
g
Optimal Tractive Effort
• Both front & rear drive would skid at the same time is
• If the front torque distributor factor is equal to the ratio of the front axle load to the total load

μ
Ff μW f 𝑙
[ mg 𝑙 2 − Ra h a − mah ∓ R g h ]
K f max = = =
F μmg cosθ μ mg cosθ

mg 𝑙2 − R a ha −mah ∓ R g h mg 𝑙2 − R a ha −h ( F − R ) ∓ R g h
K f max = K f max =
𝑙 mg cosθ 𝑙 mg cosθ

mg 𝑙2 − R a ha −h ( μmg cosθ − R a − R r − R g ) ∓ R g h
K f max =
𝑙 mg cosθ
• Ignoring Ra, Rr and Rg
𝑙2 − μ h
K f max =
𝑙
 Optimal Drive and Brake Force Distribution
• A certain acceleration a can be achieved by adjusting l2 l1
and controlling the longitudinal Traction forces F x1 and
Fx2 .
• The optimal longitudinal forces under the front and
rear tires to achieve the maximum acceleration

𝐹 𝑥 1=𝜇 𝑊 𝑓 =𝜇
( [
W
𝑙
a
𝑙2 − h
g ]) 𝐹 𝑥 2=𝜇 𝑊 𝑟 =𝜇
( [ W
𝑙
a
𝑙1 + h
g ])
• Normalized both side with W
𝐹 𝑥1 𝜇
𝑊 𝑙 [ a
= 𝑙2 − h
g ] 𝐹𝑥2 𝜇
𝑊 [ a
= 𝑙1 − h
𝑙 g ]
𝐹𝑥2 1 𝑎
𝑊
=
𝑙 𝑔 [ a
𝑙1 − h
g ]
𝑦 =𝑎 𝑥 2 +𝑏
𝐹 𝑥 2 h 𝑎 2 𝑙1 𝑎
• But for AWD maximum Traction force on both wheel
is 𝐹 =𝜇 𝑊 = 𝑊 𝑎 𝜇=
𝑎
𝑦 =− 𝑎 𝑥 2+ 𝑏
𝑊
= ( ) ( )
𝑙 𝑔
+
𝑙 𝑔
𝑔 𝑔
𝐹 𝑙2 𝑎
( ) ( )
2
h 𝑎
𝐹 𝑥1 1 𝑎
[ ]
a 𝑥1
= 𝑙2 − h =− +
𝑊 𝑙 𝑔 g 𝑊 𝑙 𝑔 𝑙 𝑔
Optimal Drive and Brake Force Distribution
• The two equations determine the value of optimal front and rear Accelerating and braking force which are
depending on Braking, is -ve Accelerating, is +ve
• The geometry of the car (h, l1, l2), and
• The acceleration a > 0 or deceleration a < 0,
• For a sample car using the following data
𝑙1 𝑙2 1
= = 𝑙1
𝑙 𝑙 2 −
h
𝑙2
• When accelerating a > 0,
h
• the optimal driving force on the rear tire grows rapidly
While on the front tire drops after reaching max.
• When max. acceleration occurs on rear wheel
While Front wheel loss contact (tilting condition)
• When decelerating a < 0
• The Optimal braking force on Front tire grows rapidly 𝑦 =− 𝑎 𝑥 2+ 𝑏 𝑦 =𝑎 𝑥 2 +𝑏
𝐹 𝑥1 𝑙2 𝑎
( ) ( )
2
𝐹 𝑥 2 h 𝑎 2 𝑙1 𝑎
while for rear tire drops after reaching maximum
• When - max. deceleration occurs on Front tire 𝑊
=−
h 𝑎
𝑙 𝑔
+
𝑙 𝑔 𝑊
=( ) ( )
𝑙 𝑔
+
𝑙 𝑔
Optimal Drive and Brake Force Distribution
• The graphical representation of the optimal driving and braking forces can be shown better
by plotting vs using (a/g) as a parameter.
𝑙
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
h 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
− + 2 −h +𝑙 2 𝑙 2 − h
𝐹 𝑥1 / 𝑊 𝑙 𝑔 𝑙 𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
= = = 𝑙2
𝐹 𝑥 2 /𝑊 h
𝑙 ( ) ( )
𝑎 2 𝑙1
𝑔
+
𝑙
𝑎
𝑔
h ( )
𝑎
𝑔
+𝑙1 𝑙1 +h ( ) 𝑎
𝑔 h

[ ] ( ) 𝑎

[ ]
𝑙2 − h 𝑙2 −𝜇 h
𝑔
𝐹 𝑋1= 𝐹𝑋2 𝐹 𝑋1= 𝐹 𝑋2 Where
𝑙 1+ 𝜇 h
𝑙 +h ( )
𝑎
1
𝑔

• Optimal Traction force distribution is the slope of the curve 𝑙1

( ( )
)
𝑎
𝑙2 − h
𝑑 ( 𝐹 𝑥 1 /𝑊 ) 𝑔 𝐹 𝑋 1 𝑙2 h
=¿ lim =
𝑙 + h(
𝑔)
𝑑 ( 𝐹 𝑥 2 /𝑊 ) 𝑎→0 𝑎
1 𝐹 𝑋 2 𝑙1

• This indicates that the initial traction force distribution depends on only position of the mass center C
Optimal Tractive Effort

• the magnitudes of transmittable traction forces are influenced by

• Major influences
• The total mass of the vehicle

• Maximum frictional coefficient (μmax)

• The position of C.G

• Minor influences
• Rolling resistance coefficients (f)
• The slope angle (θ)
Summary of Normal Load on Axles (Wf&Wr)
Condition Load on Front Wheel Load of Rear Wheel
𝑙2 𝑙1
• Parked car on Level road Wf=
𝑙
W W r= W
𝑙
W W
• Parked car on inclined Plane Wf= [ 𝑙 ∓ sinθh ] W r= [ 𝑙 ± sinθh ]
𝑙 1
𝑙 2

• Accelerating car on level road Wf=

W
𝑙 [ a
𝑙2 − h
g ] W r=
W
𝑙 [ a
𝑙 1+ h
g ]
[
• Accelerating Car on incline plane W f = W 𝑙 2 − a h ∓ sinθh
𝑙 g ] W r=
W
𝑙 [ a
𝑙 1 − h ± sinθh
g ]
• Accelerating car on level road
Including Rr, Ra and Rd
Wf=
𝑙2
𝑙
W−
h
𝑙 [ w
R a + Rd + a
g ] W r=
𝑙1
𝑙
W+
h
𝑙 [ w
Ra + R d + a
g ]
𝑙2 h 𝑙2 h
()= Wf= W − [F − Rr] W r= W + [F − Rr]
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
• Accelerating on inclined road
Including Rr, Ra, Rd and Rg
𝑙2 h
[ w
W f = W − R a + Rd + a ∓ R g
𝑙 𝑙 g ] W r=
𝑙1
𝑙
W+
h
𝑙 [ w
Ra + R d + a ± Rg
g ]
𝑙2 h 𝑙2 h
()= Wf= W − [F − Rr] W r= W + [F − Rr]
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
 Summary for Maximum and Tilting
Condition
Uphill Downhill
FWB RWB AWD FWB RWB AWD
Max. Inclination Angle (tan φM) 𝜇 𝑙2 𝜇 𝑙1 𝜇 𝜇 𝑙2 𝜇 𝑙1
𝜇
𝑙+𝜇 h 𝑙 −𝜇 h 𝑙 −𝜇 h 𝑙+𝜇 h

−𝑙 1 / h 𝑙2 / h 𝑙2 / h −𝑙 1 / h
Tilting Condition for tan φM

Maximum Acceleration FWD 𝜇 𝑙 2 RWD 𝜇 𝑙1 AWD

𝜇∨μ cos ϕ
𝑙+𝜇 h 𝑙 −𝜇 h
On level road low speed ( 𝑙 )( K )
l
μ
1
2

𝑔|
𝑎
μ ( 𝑙2 + f r h )
f
=
μ ( 𝑙1 + f r h ) 𝐹
1+
l (K )
μh 1
f

Including Rolling resistance 𝑙+ μh 𝑙 − μh

( l
μ) ( 1− K )
1 1

𝑔|
𝑙 𝑙2 𝑎
=
𝑙 f
− 1
Tilting Condition h h
𝑅

( L 1 − K ))
1−
μh
( 1
f
 Parked Car on a Banked Road
• The effect of a bank angle φ on the load distribution of a vehicle.
• A bank causes
• The load on the lower tires to increase, and
• The load on the upper tires to decrease.
• Summation of Forces in Y, Z directions and Moment about C

• The tire reaction forces are

𝑊 𝑊
𝐹 𝑧 1=
(𝑏 1+ 𝑏2 )
[ 𝑏2 cos 𝜙 − h sin 𝜙 ] 𝐹 𝑧 2=
( 𝑏1 +𝑏2 )
[ 𝑏1 cos 𝜙+ h sin 𝜙 ]

• Find the ultimate angle where all wheels will begin to slide simultaneously
 Parked Vehicles on a Crest
• Moving on the convex curve of a hill is called cresting.
• The normal force under the wheels of a cresting vehicle
is less than the force on a flat inclined road with the
same slope, because of the developed centrifugal force
mv2/RH in the −z-direction
• The traction and normal forces under its tires on the hill
with a radius of curvature RH
Parked Vehicles on a Dip
• Moving on the concave curve of a hill is called
dipping.
• The normal force under the wheels of a
dipping vehicle is more than the force on a flat
inclined road with the same slope, because of
the developed centrifugal force mv2/RH in the
z-direction
• The traction and normal forces under the tires
where the hill has a radius of curvature R H
Vehicle pulling Trailer on Inclined Plane
• Equation of Motion

• If the value of traction forces Fx1and Fx2 are given,

• Then these are six equation for six unknowns:
• a, Fxt , Fzt , Fz1 , Fz2 , Fz3
Vehicle pulling Trailer on Inclined Plane
• Equation of Motion

• If the value of acceleration a is known,

• Then these are six equation for six unknowns:
• Fx1 + Fx2 , Fxt , Fzt , Fz1 , Fz2 , Fz3 .
 Multiple-axle vehicle
• If a vehicle has more than two axles, such as the three-axle car shown in Fig., then
• The vehicle will be statically indeterminate and
• The normal forces under the tires cannot be determined by static equilibrium equations.
• We need to consider the suspensions deflection Zi at the center of axle i to determine their applied forces
• The n normal forces Fzi under the tires can be calculated using the following n algebraic equations.

+ =

+
=

Where:
• Fxi & Fzi are the long. and normal forces under the tires attached to the axle No. i,
• xi is the distance of mass center C from the axle number i
• xi is +Ve for axles in front of C, and is -Ve for the axles in back of C
• ki is the vertical stiffness of the suspension at axle i
The resultant set of equations is linear and may be arranged in a matrix form
 Wheel reactions for a three-axle car
• start counting the axles of a multiple-axle vehicle from the front axle as axle-1, and move sequentially to the
back
𝐹 𝑥 1+ 𝐹 𝑥 2+ 𝐹 𝑥3 −𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜙=𝑚𝑎
• The set of equations for the three-axle car is
𝐹 𝑧 1+ 𝐹 𝑧 2+ 𝐹 𝑧 3 −𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜙=0
• which can be simplified to
𝐹 𝑧 1 𝑥 1+ 𝐹 𝑧 2 𝑥2 + 𝐹 𝑧 3 𝑥3 + h ( 𝐹 𝑥 1+ 𝐹 𝑥2 + 𝐹 𝑥 3 ) = 0
𝐹 𝑧 1+ 𝐹 𝑧 2+ 𝐹 𝑧 3 −𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜙=0

𝐹 𝑧 1 𝑥 1+ 𝐹 𝑧 2 𝑥2 + 𝐹 𝑧 3 𝑥3 + h𝑚 ( 𝑎+ 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 ) =0
1
(
𝐹𝑧
𝑥 2 − 𝑥1 𝑘 2
−
𝐹𝑧
2

𝑘1
−
1
1

) 𝐹𝑧
𝑥 3 − 𝑥 1 𝑘3
−
𝐹𝑧
𝑘1 (
=0 3 1

)
+ [ ( 𝑥1 𝑘1 𝑘2 − 𝑥2 𝑘1 𝑘2 ) 𝐹 𝑧 1 ]=0
• The set of equations for wheel loads is linear and may be rearranged in a matrix form

[ ] [ ] [
1 1 1 𝐹 𝑧1

]
𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜙
[ 𝐴 ]= 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 [ 𝑥 ]= 𝐹 𝑧 2
[ 𝐵 ] = − h𝑚 ( 𝑎+ 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 )
𝑘2 𝑘3 ( 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 ) 𝑘1 𝑘3 ( 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 1 ) 𝑘1 𝑘2 ( 𝑥 1 − 𝑥2 ) 𝐹 𝑧3
0

• The unknown vector may be found using matrix inversion

• The solution of the equations are
Aerodynamics and Rolling Resistance
• Aerodynamic Resistance
• Aerodynamic forces and moments
• Longitudinal direction: Drag force (Da) and Rolling moment (RM)
• Lateral Direction: Side Force (SF) and Pitching moment (PM)
• Vertical Direction: Lift Force(LF) and Yawing Moment (YM)
• Sources aerodynamic forces
• Form (pressure)Drag
• Viscous Friction

• Rolling Resistance
• While other resistances act only under certain condition, rolling resistance present the instant the wheel begin to
turn
• Is not only the frictional resistance b/n the road and tire, comes from the viscoelastic behavior of the tire material
(rubber)
• important from fuel economy point of view
• Dynamic load transfer b/n axles has minimal influence on the total rolling resistance
• Aerodynamic resistance become equal to rolling resistance only at a speed of 50-60 mph
Drag Force Components
• Main Sources of Drag forces are
• Body Drag (65%)
• Forebody,
• afterbody,
• underbody
• skin friction
• Protuberance drag
• Wheels and wheels well,
• Dip rails,
• window recesses
• external mirrors
• Internal Drag
• Cooling system
Aerodynamic Forces & Moments
Drag Force, 1 2
D a= ρ V CD A
2
CD- Drag Coefficient

ρ
( )
𝑘𝑔
𝑚
3
=1.225 (
Pr
101.325 )( 288.16
273.16 T r )
A- Frontal area of the vehicle
ρ-Air Density
q=1/2 ρV2 dynamic pressure
Pr- Atm Pr (Kpa)
𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐷𝐴 Tr- Air temp in (OC) Effect Yaw Angle
𝐶 𝐷= =
( 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)( 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎) 1/2 𝜌 𝑉 2 𝐴

Total Velocity
For Heading Wind, V=Vv+Vw
For Tail Wind, V=Vv-Vw
 Rolling Resistance
• Mechanism responsible for rolling  fr value mainly depends on
resistance
 Vehicle speed
• Energy loss due to friction of the wall
near the contact area  Temperature,
• Energy loss due to deflection of the  Tire inflation pressure,
tread element
 Vertical load on the tire,
• Scrubbing in the contact patch
• Tire slip in the longitudinal and lateral  Tire material and design
direction  the road surface.
• Deflection of the road surface
• Air drag on inside and outside the tire  V2 
f  f 0  1   forV 14 m
s
• Energy loss on bumps  1500 

W- weight of wheel C-constant

Rr =(Rrf+Rrr)=fr W D-outside tire dia ht- tire section
height
fr rolling resistance coefficient w – tire section width
Rolling Resistance
• Stationary Loaded Tires (symmetrical compression)

• Rolled Tires (unsymmetrical compression)

Forward shift of the normal force makes a
resistance moment in the, opposing the
forward rotation.

Mr = Fz ΔX

( )
Mr ∆x
R r= = F z=fW
Rh Rh
Total Road Load (RRL)
• is the summation of
• Rolling Resistance (constant)
• Aerodynamic forces ( varying with speed of the vehicle)
• Grade force (Constant)
1 2
R RL = Rr + R a+ R g= f r W + V ρ C A +W sin θ❑
2 D

(
HP RL= f r W +
1 2
2
V ρC A +W sin θ❑
D
)( )V
550
• Fuel Economy Effect
• Aerodynamic and rolling resistance have significant effect on fuel consumption
• The drag coefficient has been improved
• 1970s CD= 0.4 to 0.5
• 1980s CD=Less than 0.4
• 20% weight reduction will give about 10-15% improvement of fuel economy
which about 4% is due to reduction in rolling resistance
Traction-Limit Acceleration
• Deals with the traction between tires and road.
• The acceleration may be limited by the coefficient of friction between the tire and road

•
• The weight on the drive wheel is depends on
• the static plus the dynamic load to acceleration,
• Any transverse shift of load due to drive torque
• Drive Train Configurations
• Front wheel drive (FWD) system
• Rear Wheel drive (RWD) system
• All wheel drive (AWD) or four–by-four (4WD)system
Vehicle Dynamics (MV-6131)
End of Lecture-5

Department of Motor Vehicle Engineering

Defence University- College of Engineering
2018-19 A.Y Semester I