1409

A comprehensive vehicle braking model for predictions

of stopping distances

P Delaigue* and A Eskandarian

The George Washington University Transportation Research Institute, Ashburn, Virginia, USA

Abstract: The aim of this project is to predict vehicle stopping distances for various types of braking
conditions. A comprehensive vehicle braking model has been developed. The influences of several
factors involved during braking are computed in this model with emphasis on the effects of tyres,
brakes, suspensions, environment and driver. The model using experimental data from field sources
has been validated. The model results in accurate stopping distance values (i.e. simulation outputs
always remain within close range of track test stopping distances). By predicting stopping distances
under given sets of vehicle, driver and environmental conditions, this model enables quick and accurate
estimation of vehicle braking behaviour and capability.

Keywords: automotive safety, vehicle stopping distance, factors influencing braking

NOTATION K braking torque/braking force

function coefficient
a correction coefficient for drums K equivalent spring rate of the
t
A frontal area of the vehicle tyre
C centre of gravity of the vehicle M total mass of the vehicle
g
C suspension damping rate n neuro-signal that activates the
C drag coefficient of the vehicle limb
d
D drag force p atmosphere pressure
r
E wheelbase length P ,P front and rear suspension
F,vertical R,vertical
E ,E moment arm from the C to the response forces respectively
F R g
front and rear axle respectively P total vertical force arising from
total
f unit longitudinal tyre force front and rear suspensions
x
f unit vertical load on the tyre R effective rolling radius of the
z e
f (s) saturation function developed wheel
by Szostak et al. R initial wheel radius
r
F road slope force S longitudinal slip ratio
s
F global longitudinal tyre force T air temperature
x r
F global vertical load on the tyre V vehicle speed
z V
g gravitational acceleration V wind velocity (positive for
w
H heat dissipated by the braking headwind; negative for tailwind)
system elements Z C height
C g
J vehicle’s longitudinal Z g, Z front and rear suspension
F R
deceleration vertical displacements
k tyre/road interface coefficient of respectively
adhesion
k peak tyre/surface friction a slope angle of the road
0 d angular deflection of the driver’s
coefficient A
ankle
The MS was received on 8 September 2003 and was accepted after DE variation in wheel’s kinetic
revision for publication on 13 July 2004. C
energy
* Corresponding author: Center for Intelligent Systems Research, The
George Washington University Transportation Research Institute, 20101 DE variation in braking elements’
F
Academic Way, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA. email: delaigue@gwu.edu friction energy
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1410 P DELAIGUE AND A ESKANDARIAN
Dk adhesion coefficient correction
eb
factor due to engine inertia
Dk adhesion coefficient correction
rr
factor due to rolling resistance
Dk adhesion coefficient correction
s
factor due to vehicle speed
DZ C vertical displacement
C g
h g vehicle pitch angle due to
p
braking forces
r air density
s analytical expression for the tyre
slip
v wheel angular speed
v angular velocity of the rear
r
wheels
1 INTRODUCTION
The cost of accidents to the public is huge, both in terms
of direct costs such as property damages and medical
expenses, and in terms of indirect costs such as suffer-
ing and impairment. In 2001, The Fatality Analysis
Reporting System reported 38 000 fatal crashes on the US
roads, involving 95 000 drivers. Approximately 20 per
cent of crash avoidance manoeuvres involved braking.
Better knowledge of braking performance could thus
have a significant impact on road accident frequency and
injury level.
The braking phenomenon can be considered complex
because it involves relationships between systems, whose
physical and mathematical modelling cannot always be
developed easily. The purpose of this project was to
program a model able to simulate the braking behaviour
of a passenger vehicle under various vehicle, human
and environmental conditions. This model could evaluate
the influence of several parameters on the braking per-
formance of a vehicle during an emergency braking event.
The public, traffic engineers and accident practitioners
could draw up new information from this model and
predict vehicle emergency stopping distances.
Numerous parameters affecting the braking perform-
ance of a vehicle have been studied and implemented
in this model. The pavement properties, the roadway
slope and the presence of drag/wind have been computed
here. Vehicle-related components such as general specifi-
cations (i.e. load distribution, pitch inertia and several
dimensional factors), tyre properties (i.e. dimensions, load
and pressure), presence of a brake antiblocking system
(ABS), suspension characteristics or types of brake
(drums or discs) have also been studied. Furthermore,
the driver’s behaviour (i.e. reaction time and motion
dynamics) has been taken into account.
More complex codes can provide full vehicle dynamic
models. However, they require extensive parameter values
and validations. Therefore, using such full vehicle models
to study a particular vehicle behaviour, such as the
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
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emergency braking capability, can be counterproductive.
Moreover, applications of these complex codes in con-
trol system studies are restricted. The use of MATLAB
and SIMULINK in this project provides an easy-to-use
control system development and analysis tool. Strategies
for longitudinal vehicle collision avoidance could, for
example, be studied using this model.
First, mathematical and empirical modelling methods
are presented. Then, the validation of the model against
vehicle braking experimental results is detailed.
2 MODEL DYNAMICS
Several factors influencing the dynamic behaviour
of a vehicle braking system have been studied and
implemented in the model.
2.1 Adhesion coefficient evaluation
During braking, the vehicle dynamic behaviour is initiated
by the forces developed at the tyre/road interface. To
assess these forces, the relationship between longitudinal
slip and coefficient of adhesion was evaluated using
empirical data published by Noronha [1] and shown in
Fig. 1. This adhesion coefficient is also influenced by
other parameters during braking.
Beyond some very low speeds, it is generally established
that increasing speed results in reduced levels of tyre/road
adhesion [1]. Navin determined that adhesion changes
due to speed variations can be described by an ‘equivalent’
variation in peak and sliding adhesion coefficients. Navin
estimated that a variation in speed of 1 m/s leads to an
equivalent Dk #0.0047 variation (for dry asphalt pave-
s
ment in good tread) [2]. Svaricek confirmed these values
and assessed a Dk of 0.0045 for a 1 m/s velocity variation
s
(for the same surface conditions) [3].
When tyres come to saturation during braking, the
ABS modulates the brake pressure independently at
the ABS-equipped wheels to prevent wheel lock-up. In
this simulation, the ABS system was modelled by a simple
bang–bang (i.e. switch) controller. When activated, the
ABS released the brakes completely, and the wheels
returned to a free rolling motion. Therefore, the influence
Fig. 1 Basic k versus longitudinal slip curve
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 BRAKING MODEL FOR PREDICTIONS OF STOPPING DISTANCES 1411

of rolling resistance became significant if the total tyre does not keep its symmetry of revolution during
duration of the brakes’ switched-off phases was important. braking and operates with an effective rolling radius
Although this may not be an accurate description of different from the manufacturer’s value.
the functionality of real ABS systems, this simplification
did not have a significant effect on the vehicle braking 2.2.3 Tyre spring model and R calculation
e
distances computed by the model. Warner et al. estimated
The vertical elastic characteristics of the rubber and the
that the effect of rolling resistance is ‘equivalent’ to
inner structure of the tyre are represented using a vertical
additional adhesion forces. This ‘equivalent’ adhesion
spring, the equivalent rate of which is a function of
is mainly a function of tyre inflation. Warner et al.
pressure, section width and aspect ratio. The following
published the following empirical values [4]:
expression and empirical values for the coefficients a, b
(a) Dk =0.01 for normal inflation; and c were evaluated by Allen et al. [5]:
rr
(b) Dk =0.013 for partial inflation; K =a [pressure×section width
rr t
(c) Dk =0.017 for a flat tyre.
rr
×(c+aspect ratio)]−b (3)
During free rolling phases, the engine inertia con-
tributes to slow the vehicle down. Again, this factor can The effective wheel radius during braking is given by
become significant if the brakes’ switched-off phases are F
relatively important during stopping. This additional R =R − z (4)
e r K
decelerating effect was evaluated using a corresponding t
equivalent adhesion coefficient. The values of Dk =0.1
eb 2.2.4 Normal load calculation
for high gear and Dk =0.1–0.2 for low gear have been
eb
estimated by Warner et al. [4]. During braking, load shifts from rear to front axle occur
The influence of load was accounted for in the tyre due to vehicle pitch. This load transfer is a function of
force model described in the next section, rather than in deceleration and C height [6 ]:
g
the adhesion coefficient calculation. The above empirical DZ MJ
corrections were combined with Noronha’s initial curve DF = Cg (5)
to program a more accurate and adaptive evaluation of z E
the adhesion coefficient at the tyre/road interface during Figure 2 illustrates the notation used here. The vertical
braking. displacements of the centre of gravity depend on the
suspensions, which determine the position of the vehicle
body during braking.
2.2 Tyre analytical model
2.2.1 Behaviour of a braking tyre 2.2.5 Computation of tyre forces

During braking, slip occurs due to circumferential
deformation of the tyre tread. A spring analogy can be
used to describe the tyre’s longitudinal behaviour. As
the tyre rolls during braking, each element of the tyre
in contact with the road resists the velocity with an
opposing force f . The tread is thus longitudinally
x tyre characteristics, such as slip ratio, tyre dimensions,
compressed and deformed. In the leading region of the
contact length, the rubber remains in contact with the
road. Further back from the leading edge of the tyre,
the deflection is more important and slip may occur.
The linear proportionality of the Coulomb definition of
friction is not realized in practice:
f ∏k f
x z
Szostak et al. computed the effective proportion of the
theoretical Coulomb frictional force acting on the tyres
with the formula [7]
F = f (s)kF (6)
x z
Szostak et al. assessed s and f (s) as functions of several
contact patch length, longitudinal stiffness, inflation
pressure, peak tyre/road adhesion coefficient and vertical
load. To complete the Szostak et al. model, the variations
in tyre radius and vertical load during braking were
(1)

2.2.2 Longitudinal slip ratio

The longitudinal slip is generally given by
V −R v
S= V e (2)
V
V
The effective rolling radius is the wheel radius practically
operating during stopping. Owing to vertical load, the Fig. 2 Longitudinal load transfers during braking

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1412
computed with the results published by Allen et al. [5]
and Miliken and Miliken [6 ]. Combining this modified
version of the Szostak et al. model with the adhesion
coefficient evaluation method described earlier in this
text, the global longitudinal tyre force induced at each
braking wheel is determined.
2.3 ABS regulation
The ABS is acting on the brakes by modulating their
action on the wheels, when the slip between tyres and
road reaches a certain value that corresponds to the
maximum of adhesion coefficient. On dry roads, it is
generally known that this maximum is reached when
the longitudinal slip value is around 20 per cent. In this
model, a switch controller turned the ABS on when
the tyre/road slip exceeded the desired value of 0.2.
2.4 Application of brakes
To achieve the best braking response, the adhesion force
potential should be optimally applied to each tyre. In
the case of ABS, braking forces are controlled at each
wheel independently to optimize the vehicle braking
ability. To compute braking torques, the behaviours of
several braking system components were programmed.
2.4.1 Brake fluid pressure function
In the case of full brake pedal application, a second-
order function (overshoot, 16 per cent; time to steady
state, 1 s) was used to represent the initial increase in
the brake fluid pressure in the braking lines. Figure 3
illustrates this function for an arbitrary steady state
pressure value of 300 bar. A normal force is then pro-
duced at each wheel either by the brake calipers on
the rotors in the case of disc brakes or by the brake
shoes on the inner surface of the drums in the case of
drum brakes. These braking forces were assumed to be
proportional to the brake fluid pressure that generated
them.
Fig. 3 Evolution of brake fluid pressure in the braking lines
(steady state pressure, 300 bar)
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P DELAIGUE AND A ESKANDARIAN
2.4.2 Braking torque function of braking force
The relationship between braking torques at each wheel
axle and normal forces exerted by the braking elements
on their corresponding rotating surfaces has been com-
puted using the first-order function illustrated in the
Laplace domain in Fig. 4.
In this model, K is a function of the dynamic load on
front/rear axles, k , and the type of brakes (i.e. rotors
0
or drums). This first-order function represents the initial
build-up of the braking torque when a force is applied
by the braking elements.
2.4.3 Correction factor for drum brakes
In hard braking events, drum brakes generally achieve
less effective heat dissipation than disc brakes. This leads
to a significant difference in the braking potential between
these two types of brake in hard braking situations.
Therefore, a correction factor depending on the heat
dissipated in the brakes during stopping was introduced
for braking torque calculations of vehicles equipped with
drum brakes.
During braking, the wheel’s kinetic energy is trans-
formed into energy resulting from the friction between
braking elements and into heat as follows:
DE =DE +H (7)
C F
To determine the heat dissipated, H, the brake elements’
adhesion energy DE needs to be calculated. However,
F
evaluating frictional forces would require knowing brake
elements dimensions and friction properties. Since such
data were not available, calculating the brake elements’
frictional forces and their resulting energy was out of
the scope of this study. To evaluate H, this study
assumed that the dissipated heat is directly proportional
to the wheel’s kinetic energy. The model used here was
thus based on the initial kinetic energy of the wheel and
can be described with the equation shown in Fig. 5.
After several trial-and-error iterations, the value a=107
was found to be a good compromise. If the vehicle tested
was equipped with drum brakes, the braking torques of
the drums equipped axles were multiplied in real time by
the correction factor shown in Fig. 5 (here M=1200 kg).
2.4.4 Braking fluid pressure function of k
0
Since professional drivers performing track tests generally
adapt their brake application to the pavement that
they are stopping on, the steady state value of the
Fig. 4 Braking torque versus normal braking force
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 BRAKING MODEL FOR PREDICTIONS OF STOPPING DISTANCES 1413

Fig. 5 Braking torque correction factor for drums equipped axle versus axle instantaneous rotation speed

brake fluid pressure was considered to be proportional
to the surface’s peak coefficient of friction. Although
this may not be a true representation of average drivers,
it will better resemble cases of experimental data with
professional drivers, which were used for validation of
this model.
2.4.5 Several runs for each braking configuration
A given driver can adopt different brake pedal applications
during several stopping attempts with the same vehicle
and under the same braking conditions. During real track
tests, the best stopping performance obtained by a given
driver is generally kept as the final result. In order to
simulate this variability, several brake fluid pressure
steady state values (and, therefore, braking forces and
torques) were simulated for each friction configuration
(i.e. for given k and tyre) and the shortest distance
0
computed during all simulations was kept.
The braking coefficients shown in Fig. 6 were used as
multiplying factors of the brake fluid pressure steady
state values simulated. In the first part of this plot
(i.e. ABS off ), the braking torque average increases with
increasing braking coefficient until it reaches a maximum
(2470.1 N m). Since the braking forces are then high
enough to reach the desired slip value of 0.2, the ABS
turns on and limits the total amount of braking torque
supplied to the wheel axles; i.e. the braking torque
average decreases and the stopping distance increases.
The best stopping performance is therefore achieved
when the ABS just begins to turn on because the braking
torque amount transmitted to the wheel axles reaches
a maximum at that point. Drivers performing track
tests would not necessarily be able to achieve stopping
distances as short as the model results, which correspond
to the best braking performances achievable with a
particular vehicle under given friction conditions.
Note that, even if stopping performances can some-
times be poorer just after ABS activation than with the
ABS switched off, the model showed here excessively
long stopping distances during ABS operation. This is
explained by the simplicity of the ABS model adopted.
However, this limitation does not affect the final results
(i.e. the shortest stopping distance obtained for all
braking torque values) generally obtained just after the
ABS activation.
2.5 Action of suspensions
A spring-and-damper association system was integrated
at each wheel. Figure 7 shows the physical configuration
of this model.

Fig. 6 Stopping distance for several applications of brakes (k =1; tyre, P185 75 R14)
0
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1414 P DELAIGUE AND A ESKANDARIAN

for example, in adverse weather conditions, or with

tiredness, prolonged effort and alcohol consumption.
Based on results published throughout the literature
[9–13], the mean and standard deviation estimates of
the reaction time have been programmed as follows:
Mean=(0.7 expected+1.25 unexpected
+1.5 surprise)(1+0.2 age)+0.07 gender
(11)
Fig. 7 Suspension model
Variance=[0.4(1+0.2 age)]2 (12)
where
The dynamic motion of the front/rear axles can be expectancy variables (i.e. expected, unexpected and
expressed by: surprise)=1 or 0
age=1 for elderly drivers (65 years old and above)
−2K (E h +Z )−2C(E ḣ +Ż )=P (8a) and 0 for young drivers
s F p F F p F F,vertical
gender=1 for females and 0 for males
−2K (E h +Z )−2C(E ḣ +Ż )=P (8b)
s R p R R p R R,vertical
The definition of reaction time differs significantly
To compute the longitudinal load transfers during throughout the literature. In this project the definition
braking [see equation (5)], the C vertical displacement
g published by Green was adopted [9]. This model com-
is found by integrating the force balance equation twice: bined Newcomb’s limb/foot dynamics function with the
P +Mg=MZ̈ (9) above empirical assessment of driver’s reaction time, as
total Cg illustrated in Fig. 8.
Under the small-pitch-angle assumption (pitch angles
generally stay in the range of few degrees), the vertical
2.7 Influence of drag and wind
displacements due to vehicle pitch could easily be
computed using The formula generally used to calculate the drag force
caused by the displacement of the vehicle and/or by the
Z Z
h = F= R (10) wind is
p E E
F R D= 1 rC A(V +V )2 (13)
This representation of the suspensions assumed that 2 d V W
both sides of the vehicle behave similarly. This is a Note that the air density was calculated using
reasonable assumption for the longitudinal braking events p 288.16
simulated here. r=1.225 r (14)
101.325 273.16+T
r

2.6 Human factors 2.8 Influence of road slope

2.6.1 Driver’s behaviour assessment Weight transfers due to road slope can change the
pattern of the adhesion forces in the tyre/road contact
To account for the human factors (i.e. the variability regions. This can have non-negligible consequences if the
induced by the driver’s reaction), the mathematical driver up-slope wheels are unloaded to the point that tyre/road
model programmed by Newcomb was used [8]. Newcomb
developed analytical expressions of the driver’s visual
assessment of braking path, sensory characteristics and
limb/foot force during braking. Newcomb’s driver visual
assessment function was replaced here by an empirical
reaction time evaluation.

2.6.2 Reaction time assessment

The usual driver’s reaction to a potential accident
situation is sudden braking. Consequently, one of the
main factors determining whether the accident will be
avoided is the driver’s reaction time. The reaction time
varies with age and gender and increases dramatically, Fig. 8 Driver’s model

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 BRAKING MODEL FOR PREDICTIONS OF STOPPING DISTANCES
surface dynamics are altered, or if the brakes on the
down-slope wheels are loaded beyond their capacity, or
both. The additional force due to the road slope and
exerted on the vehicle is illustrated in Fig. 9. The road
slope force is expressed by
F =Mg sin a
s and limb dynamics function developed in this model
2.9 Other components
2.9.1 Braking stimulus
When travelling, a driver may be asked to stop by differ-
ent types of signal. The behaviour adopted by the driver
may vary significantly with the potential danger of each
situation. However, in an emergency braking event, the
stimulating signal can be assumed to be instantaneous.
2.9.2 Calculator delay
For the ABS regulation loop integrated in this model, a
time delay was included in order to take into account
the processing time of the vehicle’s electronic computer
unit. This delay practically varies depending on the
amount of information that the processor has to deal
with. It was arbitrarily decided to adopt here the
constant value of 50 ms.
3 VALIDATION: COMPARISON WITH
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The mathematical and empirical models were integrated
using SIMULINK of MATLAB software. The model is
validated using three sets of vehicle braking experimental
data.
Several assumptions were made to define the scope of
braking conditions for simulations:
1. Straight-line braking was assumed. No cornering was
considered in this study.
2. In emergency braking, a hard brake pedal application
was assumed; i.e. high application rate and final force
values were performed by the driver, in order to activate
the ABS as quickly as possible.
3. The dry asphalt pavement was in good repair.
4. Recent vehicles (between the years 1995 and 2002)
are equipped with ABS.
5. Driver’s variability effects were not studied (the model
is developed but experimental data for these effects
were not available).
Fig. 9 Road slope force representation
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1415
The sources used for the following comparisons
measured stopping distances with the help of fifth-wheel
devices. This type of procedure does not account for
the distance travelled by the vehicle during the driver’s
reaction phase. In order for the simulations to retrieve
the testing conditions, the driver’s reaction time equation
(15)
were not used in the validation simulations.
For the validation of this model, the results of 37
braking track tests published by the following testing
organizations were used:
(a) the Consumer Braking Information Initiative (Phase
II ) published by National Highway Traffic Safety
Agency (NHTSA) [14];
(b) vehicle road test reviews published by Car and Driver
Magazine [15];
(c) vehicle braking tests published by Strickland and
Dagg [16 ].
Given the small size of each data sample (i.e. fewer
than ten data), computing the correlation coefficients of
the following sets of results would not be statistically
significant.
3.1 Model versus the NHTSA experiments
The comparison of the model’s estimated stopping
distances and the NHTSA experimental data for four
vehicles is shown in Fig. 10. The good result achieved
by the Chevy Malibu or the distance obtained by the
Cadillac DeVille are not adequately reflected in the
simulation results. This said, the values of these variations
still remained small (i.e. always less than 8 per cent) and
proved the model’s capability to simulate accurately the
emergency stops performed during the NHTSA tests.
3.2 Model versus reviews in Car & Driver Magazine
Figure 11 shows the comparison of simulation model
with tests for nine vehicles conducted by Car and Driver
Magazine [15]. The model resulted in more uniformly
distributed distances than the track tests. The model
accurately represented the stopping distances of six out
of eight vehicles. However, the accuracy is lower for the
unexpected poor or good braking abilities of two of
the vehicles tested.
The highest variations between simulation and experi-
ment were noticed for the Chevrolet Cavalier and the
Buick LeSabre (both experienced relatively long stopping
distances). Considering all cases, the variations between
model and tests remained in an acceptable range (i.e. less
than 9 per cent). This set of comparisons demonstrates
the validation of this model (compared with this set of
experiments).
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
1416 P DELAIGUE AND A ESKANDARIAN

Fig. 10 Model versus NHTSA results

Fig. 11 Model versus Car and Driver Magazine results

3.3 Model versus the tests made by Strickland and Dagg
Figure 12 compares simulation and experiment for
seven vehicles tested at three different initial speeds. As
in the two previous series of comparisons, the variations
between simulation results and track test distances are
acceptable (i.e. less than 9 per cent). Figure 12 also shows
the good vehicle speed dependence of the model.
The 34 simulated stopping distances all ranged within
±9 per cent of the track test results gathered. The model
generally provided more uniformly distributed results
than did the track tests. The highest variations between
model and experiments may be explained by numerous
factors: unexpected poor or good performance of the
vehicle braking system, influence of parameters not
implemented in the model, particular environmental

Fig. 12 Model versus the results obtained by Strickland and Dagg

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 BRAKING MODEL FOR PREDICTIONS OF STOPPING DISTANCES
conditions, unpredictable driver’s action, etc. However,
these variations always remained small enough to
validate the model.
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
A model able to simulate straight-line braking events
under various vehicle, driver and environmental con-
ditions was developed. The model was validated using
three sets of experimental data for 21 vehicles and 34
braking configurations. The driver’s effects were not
available in experimental data and hence were not used
for validation of the simulations. The comparisons of
stopping distances showed variations of low magnitude
between model and experiment (i.e. always less than
±9 per cent). Large differences were only observed for
a few of the simulated vehicles. The model is considered
validated and can be used as a reliable and accurate tool
for simulations of vehicle straight-line stopping events.
The flexibility of MATLAB and SIMULINK gives
users of this model an open tool that can serve as a basis
for numerous types of application. This model can be
used for parametric studies of influencing factors during
braking (including human), development of control
algorithms for braking aid systems and design of traffic
facilities among others.
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