Performance Characteristics of

Road Vehicles

Vehicle Dynamics

Professor Masoud Mojtahed

Fall 2020
Performance Characteristics of Road Vehicles

 Performance characteristics of a vehicle

deals with its ability to accelerate,
decelerate and its performance on graded
roads.
 It also deals with all resisting forces such
drag and lift forces due to the shape of the
vehicle, wind, and air density.
Equation of Motion for Vehicles
Forces Acting on a Moving Automobile on a
graded road

θs
 Equation of Motion for Cars
Using Newton’s Second Law, F = ma

(1)
where,
W = Weight of the car
Wf = Front Axle Normal Load
Wr= Real Axle Normal Load
a = Vehicle Acceleration
g = Gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2, 32.2 ft/s2)
Ra = Drag Force
Rrf = Front Tires Rolling resistance Force
Rrr = Rear Tires Rolling resistance Force
Rd = Drawbar Force (Hitch Force) ᶱ
Rg = WsinƟ = Grade Resistance Force
Ff = Front Tractive (Driving ) Force
Fr = Rear Tractive (Driving ) Force
h = Height of Center of Gravity
ha = Height of Drag Force
hd = Height of Hitch Force
L = Distance between Front and Rear Axles
l1= Distance between Center of Gravity and Front Axle
l2= Distance between Center of Gravity and Rear Axle
 Equation of Motion
• Using the D’ Alembert Principle to convert the dynamic
equation into a static one, then rewriting eq. (1),

or
(2)

• To determine the maximum tractive (driving) force, F = μW,

the normal load on each axle needs to be determined.
• Take moment about A to determine the front axle load
Forces acting on a Two-axle Vehicle Moving
on a Graded Road

θ
 Equation of Motion
(3)

The gravitational force along the incline, W sinƟs, is negative for

up the hill motion and positive for down the hill motion .
The normal load on the rear axle is determined by taking moment
about point B, then

(4)

Assuming cos Ɵ = 1 for small angles, and h = ha = hd , the above equations

are reduced to:

(5)

(6)
 Equation of Motion
• By substituting equation (2) into (5) and (6), we can
further reduce the equations to :

(7)

(8)

• The first term on the right side of equations (7 and 8)

represents the static load and the second term
represents dynamic forces on the vehicle
 Equation of Motion for Cars
• The maximum tractive force on a vehicle is μW, then
for a rear-wheel drive Fmax is given by:

(9)

• And for a front-wheel drive is determined as

(10)
 Equation of Motion for Trucks
To determine the maximum tractive force and axial loads of a
tractor-semitrailer, we analyze the cab and trailer separately.
Ra1 and Ra2 are drag forces on the cab and the trailer, respectively.
Whi is the hitch load.
Forces Acting on a Truck-Trailer

Take moments at this point

 Equation of Motion for Trucks
• In the Figure, Rrf, Rrr, and Rrs are rolling resistance of
cab’s front and rear axles, and the trailer axle,
respectively. The tractor rear axle is the driver.
• Take a moment at the intersection of hitch load line of action
and the ground line for the trailer to determine the normal
load on the semitrailer axle, Ws, and assuming small angles

(11)
Trucks Equation of Motion

should be used.

(12)
 Equation of Motion for Trucks
• The longitudinal hitch force is determined by summing
the forces in the longitudinal direction,
where, F = m2a , Rrs = frWs , fr =coefficient of rolling resistance

(13)

• Substituting (13) into (12), Ws becomes

(14)

• Next, Sum the forces in the vertical direction for

the trailer to determine the hitch load,

(15)
 Equation of Motion for Trucks

• Now we consider the tractor separately and take a

moment about the front axle to determine the rear
axle load, Wr

Assuming , , Wr becomes,

(16)
 Tractor Traction Force
• Sum the forces in the longitudinal direction to
determine the tractor’s traction force, and
F(inertia) = m1a.

(17)

• The maximum traction force that the tractor

can produce is μWr , then

(18)
 Tractor Traction Force

• Substituting Whi from equation (15) into (18),

then the maximum traction force for a tractor-
trailer under the load and applied road
conditions is determined as the following:

(19)
 Aerodynamic Forces
• The aerodynamic forces are a function of vehicle
speed and have significant effect on the driving
power and consequently the fuel efficiency of a vehicle.

(rolling and transmission resistance)

 Aerodynamic Forces

• For Passenger cars, the aerodynamic force

equals to the rolling resistance force around
the speed of 55 mi/h.
• The aerodynamic forces are produced in two
ways:
– flow of air over the vehicle
– flow of air through its cavities
• 90% of the force is produced by air flow
over the vehicle
 Aerodynamic Forces
• The external air flow produces two forces
– Normal or drag force
– Shear or friction force
• The drag force constitutes 90% of the external
forces
• The aerodynamic force is given as:

(21)

where,
ρ = air density
CD = coefficient of aerodynamic resistance
Af = frontal area of the vehicle
Vr = vehicle speed relative to wind speed
 Aerodynamic Forces

• Frontal area of a vehicle in terms of its

mass, based on collected data, is
approximately determined by:

(22)

where,
Af is in m2
mv , vehicle mass in kg
Aerodynamic Forces
Airfoil Lift
Aerodynamic Forces
Angle of attack
Drag Forces
Aerodynamic Design
CFD Modeling of Airflow
CFD Modeling of Airflow
Solar Car Design
Coefficient of Aerodynamic Resistance

• The coefficient aerodynamic resistance is a

function of vehicle design and operational
factors. The shape of vehicle body, including
front, rear, underbody, wheel-wells, drip-rails,
window recesses, external mirrors, and mud-
flaps significantly affect the coefficient of
aerodynamic resistance. Wind tunnels are used
to determine this coefficient
Aerodynamic Characteristics and Testing
• Drag and Lift Forces
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TKH1DyV9vNU

• Wind Tunnel Test

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7o8xvuzyowU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zl7jk85D2sE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9ZSAX56m0E

• Aerodynamic Trucks
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_NPNiyR5cWo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jOG6RSjIEEs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TnzUapgfgeU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_uW0_OvEkk
 Future Trucks
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v_KvfzQGWnI
Coefficient of Aerodynam ic Resistance for Passenger Cars
Fuel Economy and Aerodynamics
Fuel Economy and Aerodynamics
Aerodynamic Trucks
 Aerodynamic Lift

• Aerodynamic lift is caused by the pressure

difference across the vehicle body from the
bottom to the top.
• The lift force reduces the normal load and results
in a lower traction force
• The lift force is given by

(23)
• Where,
• CL is the coefficient of aerodynamic lift (0.2 – 0.5 for
Passenger cars)
Aerodynamic Pitching Moment

The Aerodynamic pitching moment is given as:

(24)

CM = Coefficient of aerodynamic pitching moment

LC = Characteristic length of the Vehicle (wheel base or Overall length)
CM is between 0.05 and 0.20 for passenger cars for using Af and wheel base
 Vehicle Power Plant

The vehicle traction force is limited by two factors

• Maximum tractive force at the tire ground contact
• Maximum torque of the power plant
• The smaller of two defines the vehicles performance
• In lower gears, the tractive force is limited by tire-
road adhesion
• In higher gears, the tractive force is limited by the
power plant torque
 Internal Combustion Engines

• Wide application
• High power to weight ratio
• Low cost
• Easy to start
• Good fuel economy
• Established fuel supply
• Long range without refueling
• Produces harmful gases
V-Shaped Internal Combustion
Engines
 Internal Combustion Engines
• The power plant power and torque are
function of engine speed. Ideal performance
characteristics of a power plant are a constant
power throughout operating speed
Performance of Diesel Engine
 Engine Performance

Engine performance is reduced by the

auxiliary equipment installed on the engine
Air conditioning vs Windows Down
 Effects of Atmospheric Conditions

• The Engine Power with respect to reference

atmospheric conditions for gasoline engine given
by:

where,
P 0 = engine power under reference atmospheric condition
B 0 and B a = reference and ambient barometric
pressure at the engine intake
B v = vapor pressure at engine, negligible

T and T 0 = ambient and reference temperatures

 Effects of Atmospheric Conditions

• Diesel engine power is greatly influenced

by
the ambient temperature and is given by

• SAE equation for power is given by

 Electric Vehicles
• Produce no harmful gases
• Employ Batteries
• Short range
• Lower power
• Requires frequent recharging
Electric Motor
Electric Vehicles
Electric Vehicles
Batteries
 Batteries
There are three types of batteries available for
electric vehicles:
 Lead-acid
 Nickel-Based
 Nickel-cadmium
 Nickel-metal hydride
 Lithium
Lithium-ion
Lithium polymer
 Batteries
 Lead- acid batteries are cheap, but have low power, have the
energy density of 25-30 W.h/kg and the power density of 100-
200 W/kg, and the life expectancy of 5 – 7 years
 Nickel-based batteries are more expensive, have energy
density of 35-80 W.h/kg, the power density of 100-1000 W/kg,
and the service life of up to 10 years
 Lithium-ion/polymer batteries are widely used in electronic
devices, have tendency for overheating, have the energy
density of over 100 W.h/kg and the power density of 300-1500
W/kg. Lithium batteries do not show memory effect.
 New generation of Lithium batteries can generate a power
density up to 3000 W/kg. It can release a large amount of
electricity without overheating in a very short time.
Lithium-Ion vs Nickel-Metal Hydride

The most obvious difference between Li-ion and

NiMH batteries is the material used to store
power. Lithium-ion batteries are made of carbon
and highly reactive lithium, which can store a lot of
energy. Nickel metal hydride batteries use
hydrogen to store energy, with nickel and another
metal (such as titanium) keeping a lid on the
hydrogen ions.
Lithium-Ion vs Nickel-Metal Hydride
Cost: Nickel metal hydride batteries are, right now, the less-
expensive technology. As production of lithium-ion cells ramps
up, though, economies of scale come into play and the cost of
Li-ion cells should drop. When more vehicles require more
batteries, each individual battery becomes less expensive to
manufacture.

Weight: NiMH batteries are larger and heavier than Li-ion

batteries. Weight matters in hybrid cars, since the battery
power will have to overcome the vehicle's inertia (without any
help from the gasoline engine) for maximum mileage. Lighter
battery packs with higher energy density make it easier to get
the car going.
 Lithium-Ion vs Nickel-Metal Hydride
Power: Li-ion and NiMH batteries can actually hold a similar
amount of power, but the lithium-ion cells can be charged and
discharged more rapidly. Li-ion also doesn't have as much of a
"memory effect," which occurs when a battery is recharged before
it is fully empty. This can diminish a battery's capacity. Lithium-ion
batteries are less affected by memory effect than NiMH batteries
are [source: Hitachi].
Durability: While both types of batteries are durable and both
have been in use for years in various applications, this is the one
area where NiMH has an advantage. Some Li-ion batteries don't
last as long in extreme temperatures, particularly in very hot
climates. But manufacturers are working to improve the chemistry
to make the Li-ion batteries last as long as the vehicles they
power.
 Battery Construction

Lead-acid Battery Lithium Battery

Electric Car battery
In DC motors, armature and field are connected in series
 AC Motors

• Permanent Magnet AC Motors have higher

efficiency
• Magnets are expensive
• Maximum torque is limited by the maximum
current in the stator
• Passenger cars with AC Motors can achieve up
to 290 HP and up to 210 km/h (130 miles/h)
speed (Tesla)
Permanent Magnet AC Motors
Permanent Magnet AC Motors

STATOR

ROTOR

PERMANENT
MAGNET

(a)

Fig. 3.25 The permanent magnet synchronous AC motor and its torque—power—speed
characteristics.
 Tesla All Electric Car
• The AC induction motor and single speed gear
box create instant torque from 0 rpm.
• Up to 295 ft-lb of torque and 290 horsepower
are produced as the car smoothly accelerates
from 0 to 60 mph in 3.7 seconds.
Range – Speed Chart for Tesla
 Hybrid Vehicles
• Employs both gas and Electric Engines
• Improved Fuel Economy
• Lower gas emission
• Longer travel distance without refueling
• (Chevy Volts Claims the range of 380 miles
with a full tank)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m2qvGJwTuBo
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZmHpSyTsfm0
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dLNDGUISTYM
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y8nn_s4UBws
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jNuixuVhc5E
Hybrid Drives
There are three types of hybrid vehicles:
 Series Type:
The internal combustion engine drives the
generator and its electricity is used to power the
traction motor. The internal combustion engine
is not coupled to the drive axle.

(a) series type. BA, battery; C/C, converter/controller; CL, clutch; E, engine; G,
generator; M/G, motor/generator; and TR, transmission.
Series Type Hybrid Drives
Advantages of Series Type Hybrid Drive
Parallel Type Hybrid Drive
 Both the internal combustion and the traction motor are
connected to the drive axle through a gear train.
 When driving in the city and low torque is required, the
engine is turned off, only traction motor is used.
 During the acceleration and takeover, both engine an
traction motor are used
 During highway cruising, only the engine is used

(b) parallel type. BA, battery;

C/C, converter/controller; CL,
clutch; E, engine; G, generator;
M/G, motor/generator; and TR,
transmission.
Power-split (Mixed) Hybrid Vehicle
In this type of hybrids an additional motor/generator (M/G1) is
connected to the engine through a planetary gear train. The
planetary systems divides the engine power between the
drive axle and the M/G1, to charge the battery while M/G2 is
also used to drive the axle. M/G2 has higher power than
M/G1. At high vehicle speed M/G1 provide additional power
to the axle.

(c) power-split (mixed)

type. BA, battery; C/C,
converter/controller;
CL, clutch; E, engine;
G, generator; M/G,
motor/generator; and
TR, transmission.
 Fuel Cells Engine
• A Fuel Cell directly converts chemical energy
into electrical energy.
• Proton exchange membrane fuel cell are
commonly used for automobiles
Fuel Cell
 Fuel Cells
• Each hydrogen fuel cell produces 1.23 V at 25 degrees C
• A current density of 1 A/cm2 can achieved for active area of
catalyst
• Fuel Cell has 83% efficiency
• Does not produce harmful gasses, only water is produced
• Hydrogen can be produced from water or natural gas

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GcbrHAPmoh8
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=08ZH7vwzzEg
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OmVnIIgDA7o

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-oGF7kIbtqI