EE09 502

ELECTRICAL
POWER
GENERATION,
TRANSMISSION
AND
DISTRIBUTION
 Module I (14 Hrs)

I. Conventional & non-conventional sources of energy

II. Thermal, hydroelectric, diesel,
III. Nuclear power plants
IV. Solar, wind geothermal, tidal,
V. MHD power generation

 Power plant economics-load factor – demand factor –

diversity factor – plant factor
–
 Tariff –
 Depreciation –
 Economics of pf improvement
Objectives
· To understand the various conventional and non- conventional
energy sources.
· To develop an understanding about transmission and
distribution systems.
· To evaluate the performance of transmission lines

Module I
I. Conventional & Non-conventional
Sources Of Energy –
II. Power Plant Economics-
III. Tariff
IV. Depreciation
V. Economics Of Pf Improvement
VI. Capacity Of Phase Advancing Plant.
Module II (13 Hrs)
I. Overhead transmission systems:
II. Sag and tension,
III. String efficiency,
IV. Corona
Module III (14 Hrs)
V. Distribution systems
VI. Underground cables
Module 4 (13 Hrs)
VII. Performance of transmission lines
VIII. Calculation of transmission line
inductance and capacitance,
IX. Nominal T and p methods of
calculations,
X. Rigorous solution of long lines
XI. Power flow through a transmission
line
Text Books
1. S. Sivanagaraju & S. Satyanarayana , Electric Power
Transmission and Distribution, Pearson Edn
2. S. N. Singh, Electric Power Generation, Transmission and
Distribution, PHI
3. Sony, Gupta, Bhatnagar, A Course in Electrical Power,
Dhanpat Rai and Sons
4. V. K. Mehta, Electric Power Systems, S. Chand & sons

Reference Books
1. C. L. Wadhwa, Electric Power Systems, Wiley Eastern Ltd.
2. S. L. Uppal, Electrical Power, Khanna Publishers.
3. A. S. Pabla, Electric Power Distribution Systems, Tata Mc
Graw Hill
4. B. R. Gupta, Power System Analysis and Design, Wheeler
Publishing Company, New Delhi
GENERATOR
TRANSFORMER
CONVERTS
CONVERTS
MECHANICAL
ELECTRICALL
ENERGY
ENERGY
TO ELECTRICAL
OF ONE VOLTAGE
ENERGYAND
ELECTRIC MOTOR
CURRENT LEVELCONVERTS MECHANICAL
TO ELECTRICAL ENERGYENERGY ELECTRICAL
OF OTHER VOLTAGEENERGY
AND
CURRENT LEVEL
Simple power system
Frequency 50 Hz (1% tolerance)
Voltage 230 V (6% allowable tolerance in India)

kW
kVAR
kVA

Simple power system

 Variable load on power station – due to uncertain demand of
customers

Effect of additional load –need for additional

generation ,additional equipments to control the raw materials in
accordance to power demand

Increase production cost-need number of alternators of different

capacities
Load curve – daily ,monthly, yearly ..

Importance of load curve

1. Shows time to time variation of load

2. No of units generated = area under the curve
3. Maximum demand = highest point in the curve
 Average load = Area under the load curve
24

Load factor = Average demand

Maximum demand

Load factor is specified for a particular duration of time

Helps in selecting the size and no of generating units to

meet the demand

Helps in preparing operation schedule

 Some important terms

Connected load :- sum of continuous ratings of all load

connected to the supply system

Maximum demand :–greatest load on power station during

given period

Maximum demand < connected load

Maximum demand determine the installed capacity of the a

station
 Demand factor = maximum demand
connected load

 Determines the capacity of plant equipment in the station

Load factor = average demand

maximum demand

Load factor determine the cost of unit generated – higher the

load factor lesser the cost of unit generated.

As the machine will be running at the full capacity most of

the time.
Diversity factor = Sum of individual maximum demand
Maximum demand on power station

Greater the diversity factor lesser the cost of production

Capacity factor = Actual energy produced

Maximum energy that would have been produced

= Average demand X t
maximum demand X t
Capacity factor is an indication of reserve capacity
Reserve capacity = plant capacity – maximum demand
t = total duration say one day or week
Plant use factor = Station output in kWhr
Plant capacity X hrs of use

Units generated in time t = load factor X maximum demand

Demand factor = maximum demand
connected load
Load factor = average demand
maximum demand

Diversity factor = Sum of individual maximum demand

Maximum demand on power station

Capacity factor = Actual energy produced

Maximum energy that would have been produced
= Average demand X t
maximum demand X t
Reserve capacity = plant capacity – maximum demand
t = total duration say one day or week
Plant use factor = Station output in kWhr
Plant capacity X hrs of use
Units generated in time t = load factor X maximum demand
X hrs of use
Load Duration Curve
 Load Duration Curve

Load elements of load curve are arranged in decreasing

order
Gives the idea about the load in more presentable form –
readily shows number of hours for which a given load is
prevailed
Area under load curve is same as load curve
Can be extended to include any period of time
 Unit commitment problem

• Selection of generating units depending on load curve

•The number and size of the units selected such a way that they
correctly fits the station load –ie all machines works at its
maximum efficiency point
 Important points in selecting a Generating units

•So selected that they approximately fits to load curve

•Units of different capacity –than all of same capacity
•50% - 20% anticipating for future expansion
•Spare generating units
•Large no of units of small capacity to exactly fit to the load
curve should be avoided
Base Load :- Unvarying load occurring almost whole
day on the station is known as base load
Peak load :- Various peak demands of load over and
above the base load of the station is known as peak
load
 Inter connected grid system
“Connecting several generating stations and loads in parallel to
form a grid”
Advantages of interconnection
1. Exchange of peak loads –Excess load shared
2. Use of older and less efficient plant during peak loads
3. Ensures economical operation
4. Increase in diversity factor- maximum demand on a
particular stations divided among many
5. Reduces plant reserve capacity –no need to reserve much
6. Increases reliability of supply
 Economics of power generation

“Art of determining per unit cost of production of electrical

energy”

Interest – cost of using money

Depreciation - decrease in value of an equipment due to use for
a period of time
 Cost of electrical energy

1.Fixed cost 2.Semi fixed cost 3.Running cost

1. Fixed cost :- annual cost of central organization ,interest on

capital cost land machinery etc ,salaries of high officials
Independent of maximum demand and independent of units
generated

2. Semi fixed cost :- annual interest ,depreciation taxes salaries

of management and clerical staff
Depends on maximum demand and independent of units
generated

3. Running Cost :- Cost of fuel lubricating oil maintenance

repairs and salaries of operating staff
Proportional to number of units generated
 Expressions for cost of electric energy

I. Three part form

Total annual cost of energy = fixed cost + Semi fixed cost +
running cost
= a + b kW + c kWhr
a= independent bα max demand cα units generated
II. Two part form
Total cost = Semi fixed cost + running cost
= b kW + c kWhr
 Determination of depreciation

 Amount collected as depreciation = Cost of replacement or

maintenance for
equipments etc
 Suitable amount set aside every year

3 Methods for determining depreciation

1.Straight line method

2. Diminishing value method
 Straight line method

• Annual depreciation = P-S

n
P = initial cost
S= scrap Value
.n = No of years
Two defects:

1. Constant depreciation for very year -wont make any sense

2. It does not account for interest which may be drawn during
accumulation
 Diminishing value method
Depreciation charge is made every year at fixed rate on the
diminished value of the equipment ie depreciation is applied,
to the initial cost of the equipment in the first year ,then to
the diminished value successive years
Let P= initial cost ; x = depreciation rate(% of depreciation)
 Depreciation after 1 year = Px
 Value of equipment after 1 year =P – Px = P(1-x)
 Depreciation after 2 years = [P (1-x)]x
 Value of equipment after 2 years =P(1-x) - [P (1-x)]x
 = P(1-x)(1-x)
 = P (1-x)2
 Value of equipment after n years = P (1-x)n
 Scrap Value S = P (1-x)n
 Rate of depreciation x = 1 – (S/P)1/n

 Depreciation after 1st year = P x = P[1 – (S/P)1/n]

 Advantages

• More rational method than st line method

Disadvantages

• Depreciation charge heavy during initial years and low

during final years where repair cost may be maximum
• Do not account for rate of interest which may draw during
accumulation
 3. Sinking fund method

In this method a fixed charge is made every year and interest is

compounded to it. The constant depreciation charge is such
that total of annual installments plus the interest accumulates
equal to the cost of replacement of the equipment after its
useful life
Let P= initial cost
.n = useful life of equipment in years
S = scrap value after useful life
.r = annual rate of interest expressed as
decimal

Let us suppose an amount q is set aside every year and interest is

compounded to it ,so that

Amount collected in Compound interest for n years = q(1+r)n

 Compound interest
Let Principal amount = q, Yearly interest rate is = r
After Ist year
Interest = qr
Amount is = q + qr = q(1+r)
After 2nd year
interest = q(1+r) r
Amount is = q(1+r) + q(1+r)
r = q(1+r) (1+r)
= q(1+r) 2

After n years = q(1+r) n

An amount q is collected every year and compound
interest is calculated on that
q is collected at the end of 1st year, hence the interest
for machines life time = q(1+r)n-1
q is collected at the end of 2nd year, becomes
= q(1+r)n-2
q is collected at the end of 3rd year, becomes
= q(1+r)n-3
q is collected at the end of n-1th year, becomes
= q(1+r)

Total fund collected after n years =

q(1+r)n-1+ q(1+r)n-2 + q(1+r)n-3 ………q(1+r)
q{(1+r)n-1+ (1+r)n-2 + (1+r)n-3 ………(1+r)}
 This is a G.P with sum given as
= q(1+r)n - 1
r

This total fund collected after n years must be equal to cost of

replacement ie P-S
P-S = q(1+r)n - 1
r

Sinking fund q = P-S r

q(1+r)n - 1
 Tariff
“Rate at which electric energy is supplied to customer”

Objectives of tariff
1.Recovery of cost of production
2.Recovery of capital investment on transmission and
distribution system
3.Recovery of cost of operation and maintenance
4. Suitable profit on capital investment
 Characteristics of good tariff
1. Proper return
2. Fairness - Tariff must be fair -so that different types of
consumers are satisfied –a big consumer should have low
tariff as their increased demand spreads fixed charges over a
greater number of units-thus reducing overall cost of electric
energy. Similarly consumers whose load wont vary much
from ideal should have low tariff
3. Simplicity – to be understood by ordinary consumers
4. Reasonable profit – restricted to 8% or near
5. Attractive – to customer
 Types of tariff

1.Simple tariff or uniform tariff

Where there is a fixed rate for per unit of energy consumed

Defects
1.There is no discrimination between different types of
customers
2. The cost of per unit delivered high
3.It does not encourage use of electricity
 2. Flat rate tariff

Where different types of consumers are charged at different

uniform per unit rates

Consumers classified into different groups ,and each class of

consumers charged at different uniform rate.

Defects
1.Separate meters for lighting and power loads
2.Discrimination between customers
 3. Block rate tariff

A block of energy is charged at a specified rate and succeeding

block charged at progressively reduced rate

Advantage –customer gets incentive to consume more electric

energy
Defects- its lacks a measure of consumers demand
 4. Two Part tariff
Rate of electric energy depends on maximum demand of consumer
and units consumed
Total charges =[b kW + c kWhr] Rs
Merits
1.Easy to understand by customers
2.It recovers fixed charges which depend upon maximum demand
of consumers and are independent of units consumed
Defects
The customer has to pay fixed charges irrespective whether
consumed or not and chance of error in calculating fixed
charges
 5. Maximum demand tariff

 Similar to two part tariff

 Maximum demand actually measured by installing

maximum demand meter in the premises of customer

 Removes the objection in two part tariff that maximum

demand is accessed merely on the basis of ratable value

 6. Power factor tariff
Tariff in which power factor of consumers are taken into
consideration
Low power factor must be penalized
Important types of power factor tariff
1 kVA maximum demand tariff-maximum demand measured in
kVA not in kW
2.Sliding scale tariff/average power factor tariff
Ave pf fixed – charged for the same if power factor is below –
incentive given if pf is above
3 kWh and kVAR tariff –active and reactive power charged
seperately
 7. Three part tariff

Total annual cost of energy = fixed cost + Semi fixed cost

+running cost
= a + b kW + c kWhr

a= dependent
bα max demand
cα units generated
• A consumer has a maximum demand of
200KW at 40% load factor . If the tariff is
Rs.100 per KW of maximum demand plus 10
paise per kWh, find the overall cost per kWh.
POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
 Power Factor
-cosine of the angle between current and voltage
--Power factor is decided by loads
-low power factor due to lagging loads
-Low pf highly undesirable
Reactive power supplied by generator
Reactive power is neither consumed in the circuit nor it does
any useful work ,It merely flows back and forth in both
directions

Also wattmeter does not measure reactive power

Beer analogy of reactive power concept
 Power Factor
-cosine of the angle between current and voltage
-low power factor due to lagging loads
-Power factor is decided by loads
-Low pf highly undesirable –it causes increase in current -
resulting in additional losses of active power in all elements
of power system from power generating station down to the
utilization devices
-In order to ensure most favorable conditions for a supply s/s
from engineering and economical stand point it is important
to have power factor as close to unity as possible
 Power Factor > Mathematical model
- Power factor = cosine of angle between voltage and current
-inductive current lags voltage –power factor is lagging

Pf = Cos Ø

ICos Ø > Real component of Current

V
Ø

I SinØ > Reactive

component of Current
I
 Power Triangle

Real Power kW
V I Cos Ø

Ø V I Sin Ø

Reactive Power
kVAR
kVA
Apparant Power VI
Pf = Cos Ø = Real power = kW
Apparent power kVA
kW = kVA Cos Ø
Tan Ø = Real power kW
kVAR = kW Tan Ø
Reactive power kVAR
 Power Relations

Pf = Cos Ø = Real power = kW

Apparent power kVA
kW = kVA Cos Ø

kVAR = kW Tan Ø

IL α = kW
Cos Ø
 Disadvantages of low pf
1. Large kVA rating of equipment
Eg: for generating 80kW-> 100kVA at 0.8 pf
88.8 kVA at 0.9 pf
114.28 kVA at 0.7pf
2. Greater Conductor size
Eg : for generating 400 MW at 400V _> 721A at 0.8 pf
641A at 0.9 pf
824A at 0.7 pf
3.Large copper loss in generators, transmission lines and transformers
> Due to greater currents

4.Poor voltage regulation > due to large volt drops in gen, tn lines and
transformers

5.Reduced handling capacity of the system > system should be loaded

according stability and security limits
 Causes of low pf
1. Most of ac loads are inductive in nature – 80% loads inductive
motors- lagging power factor-pf 0.2 to 0.3 under light load-0.8
to 0.9 under full load
2. Electrical loads like arc lights, electric discharge lamps
Industrial heating loads operate under low pf
3. The load of power system is varying –being high during
morning and evening and low during other times –during low
load period supply voltages increases which causes the increase
in magnetization currents in machines resulting in reduced pf
 Reactive power supplied by generator

Reactive power supplied by Capacitor bank

 Power Factor Improvement
-inductive current lags voltage –power factor is lagging
-capacitive current leads voltage –power factor leading

Ic

I Cos Ø
V
Ø1 Ø2 I’ Sin Ø2
I’
I Sin Ø1 – I’Sin Ø2

I
 After Power Factor Improvement
1.Current I’ after pf correction, is reduced than original I

2. The active or wattfull or useful component remain the same

I CosØ 1 = I’ CosØ2

3. Reduced reactive component

Ic = I’Sin Ø1 - I Sin Ø2

4. Active power remains same

kW’ = kW
 Power Factor Improvement
kVARc
-

kW

Ø1 Ø2 kVAR2
kVA2
kVARc
kVAR1
kVA1

kVAR1 = kW TanØ1 kVAR2 = kW TanØ2

kVAR c added to decrease Ø1 to Ø2 = kW (TanØ1- TanØ2)

 kVAR1 = kW TanØ1

kVAR2 = kW TanØ2

• kVAR c added to decrease Ø1 to Ø2 = kW (TanØ1- TanØ2)

• kVARc added to increase power factor from CosØ1 to Cos Ø2

= kW {Tan[Cos -1(Ø1)- Tan[Cos -1(Ø2)]}

 Power Factor Correction Equipments

-for large stations pf is from 0.8 to 0.9

1. Static Capacitor
2. Synchronous condenser
3. Phase Advancers
 1. Static Capacitor
-Pf can be improved by connecting capacitor connecting in parallel
to the equipment operating at low pf

-Static condenser/capacitor draws leading power hence by

partially or fully nullifying the effects of reactive power ie pf is
improved

-Advantages
1.Have no losses(in ideal case)
2. Require less maintenance as have no rotating parts
3.Can be easily installed as it is light and require no foundation
4.Can work under ordinary climatic conditions

-Dis advantages
1.Short service life from 8 -10 Years
2. Gets easily damaged when voltage exceeds rated value
3.Repairing is uneconomical
 1. Static Capacitor
-Pf can be improved by connecting capacitor connecting in parallel
to the equipment operating at low pf

-Static condenser/capacitor draws leading power hence by

partially or fully nullifying the effects of reactive power ie pf is
improved

-Advantages
1.Have no losses(in ideal case)
2. Require less maintenance as have no rotating parts
3.Can be easily installed as it is light and require no foundation
4.Can work under ordinary climatic conditions

-Dis advantages
1.Short service life from 8 -10 Years
2. Gets easily damaged when voltage exceeds rated value
3.Repairing is uneconomical
 2. Synchronous Condenser
-Over excited synchronous motor running under no load takes leading
current therefore behaves as leading power factor load
-Such a machine connected in parallel to the load has leading current
there by reducing the lagging reactive component of the load hence
by improving power factor
-generally used at major bulk power supply stations for power factor
improvement
-Advantages
1.Steapless control of reactive power(power factor) by varying the
excitation current drawn by the mtor
2.The motor windings have high thermal stability to S.C current
3.Faults can be removed easily
-Dis advantages
1.Considerable loss in the motor
2.Maintenance cost high
3.Noisy operation
4.Un economical for sizes <500kVA
5.As syn motor not self starting–needs auxiliary equipments for starting
 2. Synchronous Condenser
-Over excited synchronous motor running under no load takes leading
current therefore behaves as leading power factor load
-Such a machine connected in parallel to the load has leading current
there by reducing the lagging reactive component of the load hence
by improving power factor
-generally used at major bulk power supply stations for power factor
improvement
-Advantages
1.Steapless control of reactive power(power factor) by varying the
excitation current drawn by the mtor
2.The motor windings have high thermal stability to S.C current
3.Faults can be removed easily
-Dis advantages
1.Considerable loss in the motor
2.Maintenance cost high
3.Noisy operation
4.Un economical for sizes <500kVA
5.As syn motor not self starting–needs auxiliary equipments for starting
 3. Phase advancers
-Used to improve pf of IM
-Low pf of IM due to excitation current-
-Phase advancers provide excitation current hence supply is relieved
from reactive current
-Phase advancers mounted on same shaft of the main motor and is
connected to rotor circuit of motor

-Advantages

1. Excitation ampere turns are supplied at slip frequency there by

lagging kVAR drawn by the motor is considerably reduced
2. Phase advancers are conveniently used where the use of syn
condenser is un economical
-Dis advantages

Not economical for motors < 200 hP

 3. Phase advancers
-Used to improve pf of IM
-Low pf of IM due to excitation current-
-Phase advancers provide excitation current hence supply is relieved
from reactive current
-Phase advancers mounted on same shaft of the main motor and is
connected to rotor circuit of motor

-Advantages

1. Excitation ampere turns are supplied at slip frequency there by

lagging kVAR drawn by the motor is considerably reduced
2. Phase advancers are conveniently used where the use of syn
condenser is un economical
-Dis advantages

Not economical for motors < 200 hP

 kVAR1 = kW TanØ1

kVAR2 = kW TanØ2

• kVAR c added to decrease Ø1 to Ø2 = kW (TanØ1- TanØ2)

• kVARc added to increase power factor from CosØ1 to Cos Ø2

= kW {Tan[Cos -1(Ø1)- Tan[Cos -1(Ø2)]}

 P kW A
O
Ø2
Ø1
kV
A2 kVAR2

kVAR1
kV
A1

C
kVAR1 –
kVAR2

B
Assuming two part tariff = b kVA + c KWhr
Tariff rate : 100Rs /kVA ,0.20Rs /kWhr , 60 Rs / kVAr working 300 hrs per
annum
Electricity cost Before installing pf improving device
500 X 100Rs + 171 X 300hrs X 0.2 Rs
Electricity cost After installing pf improving device
342 X 100Rs + 171 X 300hrs X 0.2 Rs
Saving in kVA demand due to pf improvement
500 X 100Rs -342 X 100Rs =100( 500 -342 ) = 15800
171P kW A
O
60
70 37
2k 296.18kVAR
VA
2
469.84 kVAR
50
0
kV
A

173.63kVAR

B
Or in general
Saving in kVA demand due to pf improvement
x ( kVA1 - kVA2 ) where x = cost /kVA
= x { (P/CosØ1)- (P/CosØ2)}
= x P{ (SecØ1)- (SecØ2)}

171P kW A
O
60
70 37
2k 296.18kVAR
VA
2
469.84 kVAR
50
0
kV
A

173.63kVAR

B
The savings is obtained is at the cost of investment for kVAR
Investment required is kVARc = (kVAR1 – kVAR2) X Cost per kVA
= (469.84 – 296.18) X 60 Rs
= 173.63 X 60 =10417.8 Rs
Or in general
y P{ (TanØ1)- (TanØ2)}
P is the real power in kW and y = Rs per kVAr
171P kW A
O
60
70 37
2k 296.18kVAR
VA
2
469.84 kVAR
50
0
kV
A

173.63kVAR

B
Net saving for one year
Saving in kVA demand – Investment in kVAR
Or in general
S = x P{ (SecØ1)- (SecØ2)} - y P{ (TanØ1)- (TanØ2)}

171P kW A
O
60
70 37
2k 296.18kVAR
VA
2
469.84 kVAR
50
0
kV
A

173.63kVAR

B
Net saving for one year
S = x P{ (SecØ1)- (SecØ2)} - y P{ (TanØ1)- (TanØ2)}
x = Rs per kVA y = Rs per kVAr

Case 1: Ø1 =70 & Ø2 = 60 Saving S = 5382Rs

Case 1: Ø1 =70 & Ø2 = 30 Saving S = 7986Rs
Case 1: Ø1 =70 & Ø2 = 10 Saving S = 6253Rs

171P kW A
O
60
70 37
2k 296.18kVAR
VA
2
469.84 kVAR
50
0
kV
A

173.63kVAR

B
 PP kW
A
O

kV
A2 kVAR2

kVAR1
kV
A1

C
kVAR1 –
kVAR2

B
 Assignment 1
1.Define diversity factor and plant factor ,explain its relevance
2.Brief about various conventional and non conventional sources of energy
3.Explain the terms interest and depreciation as applied to economics of power generation
4.Describe desirable characteristics of tariff
5.Derive an expression for the most economical value of power factor which may be attained
by a consumer
6

7
 250 kW
171 kW A 79 C
O
60
70
50
0k 433.01
VA
kVAR
686.86
50

kVAR
0k
VA

E
79
F kVAR1 –
B 70 kVAR2
23 A

D
0.
kV

98
 250 kW
171 kW A 79 C
O
60
70
50
0k 433.01
VA
kVAR
686.86
50

kVAR
0k
VA

E
79
F kVAR1 –
B 70 kVAR2
23 A
0.
kV

98

D
 250 kW
171 kW A 79 C
O
60
70
50
0k 433.01
VA
kVAR
686.86
50

kVAR
0k
VA

E
79
F kVAR1 –
B 70 kVAR2
23 A
0.
kV

98

D
 250 kW
171 kW A 79 C
O
60
70
50
0k 433.01
VA
kVAR
686.86
50

kVAR
0k
VA

E
79
F kVAR1 –
B 70 kVAR2
23 A
0.
kV

98