Topic 5

Power System Loads

Dr. Zulkarnain Ahmad Noorden

P06-210, 07-5535451, 019-7422313

Institute of High Voltage & High Current (IVAT)

School of Electrical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
 Power System
Transmission

Generation

Distribution
*Photo from http://www.poncelectric.com/
 Power System Loads

Distribution
*Photo from http://www.poncelectric.com/
 Objectives

Student should be able to:

1. Explain the types of electrical loads.

2. Define and determine various terms and factors in power

plant engineering.

3. Explain the nature of loads and how they are met.

4. Explain, determine and analyzed tariff and energy

consumption and cost of consumers.
 Load
Load Curve Terminology
Diversity 1- Types of Loads
Factor Utilization Load Duration
Load Factor Curve
Factor
2- Load Calculation
Plant Capacity 3- Generation Plan
Demand Factor
Factor

4- Tariff
7- Energy Audit

6- Demand Side 5- Quality of Supply

Management
 1
Type of Loads &
Definitions
 Introduction

This chapter discusses characteristics and ways of

electricity being used and how utility meet these
demands economically, effectively and satisfactorily.
 Types of Loads

Residential load:
oThis type of load includes domestic lights, power needed
for domestic appliances such as radios, televisions, water
heaters, refrigerators, rice cookers, fans, small motors etc.

Commercial load:
oIt includes lighting and air-conditioning for shopping
complexes, offices, hospitals and schools.
 Types of Loads

Industrial load:
oIt consists of various demands of industries. The main loads
in the sector are three phase induction motors.

Public lighting and municipal loads:

oMostly consist of street and city/town lighting, power
required for water supply and drainage purposes.

Agricultural load: Motors for irrigation and lighting.

Mining load: Motors for pumping etc.

 Terms and Definitions

Connected load:

oThe connected load on any system, or part of a system, is

the combined continuous rating of all the receiving
apparatus on consumers’ premises, which is connected to
the system, or part of the system, under consideration.
 Terms and Definitions

Demand:

oThe demand of an installation or system is the load that

drawn from the source of supply at the receiving terminals
averaged over a suitable and specified interval of time.

oDemand is expressed in kilowatts (kW), kilovolts-amperes

(kVA), amperes (A), or other suitable units.
 Terms and Definitions

Maximum or peak demand or load:

oThe maximum demand of an installation or system is the

greatest of all demands that have occurred during a given
period.

oIt is determined by measurement, according to

specifications, over a prescribed interval of time.
 Terms and Definitions

Base Load:

oIt is the unvarying load which occurs almost the whole

day on the power station.

oIt is the lowest load to be supplied at any time.

Intermediate load:

oLoads between the base and peak loads that have to be

fed by the system.
 Peak, Intermediate &
Base Loads

Peak load
Intermediate load

Base load
 2
Load Curve & Factors
 Load Profile or Load Curve

v A load curve is a graphic record showing the power

demands for every instant during a certain time
interval.

v Such a record may cover:

o one hour: an hourly load profile;
o 24 hours: a daily load profile;
o a month: a monthly load profile;
o a year (8760 hours): a yearly load profile.
 Load Profile or Load Curve

Example of Daily Load Profile

 Load Profile or Load Curve

Example of Daily Load Profile

 Load Profile or Load Curve

Significance of load curve or load profile:

1.Give information about the incoming load and help to

decide the installed capacity of the power station and to
decide the economical sizes of various generating units.

2.Help to estimate the generating cost and to decide the

operating schedule of the power station i.e., the sequence
in which different units should be run.
 Load Profile or Load Curve

The following points are worth noting:

1. The area under the load curve represents the energy

generated in the period considered.

2. The area under the curve divided by the total

number of hours gives the average load on the
power system.

3. The peak load indicated by the load curve represents

the maximum demand of the power system.

4. The base load is the lowest demand registered.

 Load Duration Curve

Daily Load Curve

Load duration curve

v Represents rearrangements of all the load elements of

chronological load curve in order of descending
magnitude.
 Load Duration Curve
It may be observed that the maximum load on
power station is 35 kW from 8 a.m. to 2 p.m.
 Load Duration Curve
The load curve that are plotted in
descending order is the same figure to
form the load duration curve.
 Load Duration Curve

Points to be noted:

1.The area under the load duration curve represents the

total energy delivered by the generating station.

2.Load duration curve gives a clear analysis of

generating power economically.

3.Proper selection of base power plants and peak load

power plants become easier.
 Load Factor

Definition:

vThe load factor is the ratio of the average power to the

maximum demand.

vThe load factor should be high; if it is unity, all the

plant is being used over all of the period.

vIt varies with the type of load, being poor for lighting and
high for industrial load (e.g. 100% percent for pumping
stations).
Load Factor
Case 1
Case 2
 Diversity Factor

v This factor measures the diversification of the load and

is concerned with the installation of sufficient
generating and transmission plant.
v If all the demand occurred simultaneously, diversity
factor would be unity, many more generators would have
to be installed.
v However, the factor is usually higher especially for
domestic loads.
 Diversity Factor

Higher diversity factor could be obtained if consumers

could be persuaded to take load as shown in Case 1
 Diversity Factor

Lower diversity factor could be obtained if consumers

could be persuaded to take load as shown in Case 2
 Other Factors
Utilization factor
o It is defined as the ratio of the maximum generator
demand to the generator capacity.
Plant capacity factor
o It is defined as the ratio of actual energy produced in
kWh to the maximum possible energy that could have
been produced during the same period.
 Other Factors
Demand factor
o It is the ratio of maximum demand on the power station
to its connected load.

o The value of demand factor is usually less than 1 as

maximum demand is generally less than the connected
load.
 3
Generation Planning
 Generation Planning

Peak load
Intermediate load

Base load
 Generation Planning

Base Power Plants

v Deliver full power at all times. Nuclear and coal-fired
stations are particularly well adapted to furnish base
demand.

Nuclear power plant Coal power plant

 Generation Planning

v Thermal power station using gas or coal take from 4 to 8

hours to start up, while nuclear stations may take several
days.

v The economic characteristics of base load plants should be:

osupply power at high capital costs

olow costs of operation.
ohigh load factors
overy efficient.
 Generation Planning

Intermediate Power Plants

v Hydropower stations are

well suited for this
purpose.

v The stations can respond relatively quickly to changes in

demand, usually by adding or removing one or more
generating units.
 Generation Planning

Peak Power Plant

vDeliver power for brief intervals during the day.

vSuch stations must be put into service very quickly.

vThey are equipped with prime movers such as diesel engines,

gas turbines, compressed air motors, or pumped storage
turbines that can be started up in a few minutes.

vThe peak load plants should be inexpensive in starting and

shutting down operations.
Example 1
Example 1
Example 1
Example 1
Example 1
Example 1
 Example 2

Total diversity factor = 1.42

Example 2
Example 2
Example 2
Example 2
 4
Tariffs
 Tariffs
v Power utility charges consumers for the use of electricity.

v The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a

consumer is known as tariff.

v Each company has its own set of tariffs. The following items
are chargeable:
o Usage charge: Amount of electricity consumed in kWh,
o Capacity charge: Maximum demand in kW,
o Reactive power charge: Penalty for poor power factor.

v 18 categories of tariff: 1 for domestic, 3 for commercial, 8 for

industrial, 3 for mining and other 3 for agricultural.
Domestic Tariffs
Commercial Tariffs
Industrial Tariffs
Mining Tariffs
Agricultural Tariffs
 Tariffs

v Charges are usually made on the monthly usage.

v Some supply authorities encourage consumers to use

high voltages by reducing tariffs charges for the kWh
consumption while others do not.

v Another incentive in the form of lower kWh charges

during off-peak hours (usually from midnight to dawn)
is given to consumers to encourage them to operate
during these hours when the overall electricity
consumption is low.
 Example 3

In June 06, Madam Kamala consumed 300 kWh of

electricity. Determine her electricity bill for the month.
Example 4
Example 4
 5
Quality of Supply
 Quality of Supply
v The quality of electricity supply is usually evaluated basing on
the following aspects:

Reliability

oReliability of a supply system is the criterion to assess the

availability of the supply system.

oIt is normally measured by frequency and duration of

supply interruptions experienced by consumers.

oUnreliable electricity supply systems will result in more

frequent supply interruptions.
 Quality of Supply
Power quality

oThe power quality is the availability of the supply current

and voltage in a pure sinusoidal waveform

oIt is normally evaluated by the number of incidents where

the magnitudes of the supply voltage and frequency
deviate from the prescribed limits.

oPoor power quality is normally a result of overvoltages,

undervoltages and voltage distortions.
 Quality of Supply

o Overvoltages : caused by faults in the electricity supply.

o Undervoltages : caused by inadequate installation capacity

to meet the demand.

o Voltage distortions (voltage dips, voltage swells, flickers,

surges and harmonics) : due to natural causes such as
lightning, faults in the supply equipment, switching
operation of the supply system or operation of consumer
appliances.
 Quality of Supply
Voltage dips/sags

o Voltage sags or dips which are brief reductions in

voltage, typically lasting from a cycle to a second or so,
or tens of milliseconds to hundreds of milliseconds.

o Voltage swells are brief increases in voltage over the

same time range.

o If the periods of low or high voltage are longer, they are

referred to as "under voltage“ or "overvoltage".
 Quality of Supply
o Voltage sags are caused by abrupt increases in loads
such as short circuits or faults, motors starting, or electric
heaters turning on, or they are caused by abrupt increases
in source impedance, typically caused by a loose
connection.

o Voltage sags are the most common power disturbance.

At a typical industrial site, it is not unusual to see several
sags per year at the service entrance, and far more at
equipment terminals.
 Quality of Supply

oVoltage sags can arrive from the utility; however, in most

cases, the majority of sags are generated inside a building.

oFor example, in residential wiring, the most common

cause of voltage sags is the starting current drawn by
refrigerator and air conditioning motors.
 Quality of Supply

Voltage swells

oVoltage swells are almost always caused by an abrupt

reduction in load on a circuit with a poor or damaged
voltage regulator, although they can also be caused by a
damaged or loose neutral connection.

Poor supply quality will cause electrical equipment

to malfunction and operate unsatisfactory.
 Quality of Supply
Factors affecting the Quality of Supply
v The quality of supply is affected by the entire supply
system, i.e. the generation, transmission and supply
systems and the consumers’ equipment.

v Among the factors affecting the quality of supply are:

o Supply-demand situation
o Terrain around the supply area
o Weather
o Conditions of the supply system equipment
o Condition of consumer installations
 Quality of Supply

Overall Performance of the Supply System

vThe SAIDI or System Average Interruption Duration

Index is an indicator usually used to evaluate
performance of the supply system.

vThe index is the duration of supply interruptions which is

experienced by a consumer in a certain period.

vA smaller index indicates better performance

compared with a higher index.
 6
Demand Side
Management
 Demand Side Management

v Demand Side Management (DSM) is aimed at

optimizing the use of energy.

v It attempts to modify the shape of the load curve to

produce economy of operation by influencing the
consumer’s side of the system.

v DSM activities include tariffs, pumped storage and

strategic energy conservation or efficient use of energy.

v A more direct method would be the control of the load

either tariff structure or direct control of appliances.
 Demand Side Management

Load Curve Modification

 Demand Side Management

v Direct control of appliances can be in the form of

remote on/off control of electric-water heaters or
freezers, where inconveniences to the consumers are the
least.

v This permits load reduction almost instantaneously and

defers the hot-water and heating of air-conditioning load
until after system peak.
 Demand Side Management
v The optimum use of energy will result in:
o The conservation of the world’s natural resources
o The reduction in the costs
o The protection and sustainability of our environment

v Efficiency can be achieved in many ways:

o Control use of artificial lighting (day-lighting)
o Optimization of air-conditioning plants operation
o Maximum demand management
o Power factor control
o Replace to more efficient machines
o Good housekeeping
 7
Energy Audit
 Energy Audit
v An energy audit is a study of the energy usage in a
company, a building, a process or even a piece of
equipment, and making recommendations for action to
reduce energy costs.

v The study examines the areas of energy consumption and

identify:

o Locations of energy wastage;

o Areas where energy losses can be reduce;
o Areas or equipment which require replacement,
preferably with newer and more efficient equipment
or systems.
Example 4