T H E R E S E A RC H P RO C E S S

STEP-II
FOR M A HY P OT H E S I S O R P R E D I C T I O N
 SELECTION OF

A RESEARCH METHOD
&
RESEARCH DESIGN
 Statistical
Analysis

Research ES
Methods/ IN
RM
Research E TE
D
Design
S
Hypothesis INE
TE RM
DE
Research
IN ES
Question ERM
D E T
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Descriptive/
Correlational Prediction
Prevalence

Causal Comparative
 CATEGORIES OF HYPOTHESES

The hypothesis of an association/ relationship

The hypothesis of a Prediction (Association/

Relationship)

The hypothesis of a difference

The hypothesis of a treatment effect

NOTICE THE FIRST QUESTION:

What is the average number of words a typical 2-year-old can say?

This question is asking about a single variable (the number of words)

which is merely a description of the variable.
A DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH
DOESN’T REQUIRE
A HYPOTHESIS
NOTICE THE SECOND QUESTION:

Is there a relationship between parenting styles and the

level of the child’s academic performance?

The second question is asking about a relationship between

two variables (parenting styles and academic performance).

Specifically, this question is asking whether a relationship

exists.

HYPOTHESIS OF
ASSOCIATION
NOTICE THE FOURTH QUESTION:

Does parenting styles predict academic performance of

students?

The second question is asking about a relationship between

two variables (parenting styles and academic performance)
In addition, this question is asking for explanation i.e.
whether parenting styles explains any variance or difference
in child’s academic performance level.

HYPOTHESIS OF
PREDICTION/
EXPLANATION
NOTICE THE THIRD QUESTION:

Is there an difference in the positive psychological functioning of

individuals with different marital status?
NOTICE THE FIFTH QUESTION:

Is CBT effective for reducing depressiopn?

The second question is asking about the treatment effect

(CBT)

HYPOTHESIS OF
TREATMENT
EFFECT
 HYPOTHESIS FORMATION FOR
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
 HYPOTHESIS FORMATION FOR
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Hypothesis forms the foundation for your research study.

Conducting the study provides an empirical test of the hypothesis.

The results of the Statistical Analysis of the obtained data will either
provide support for the hypothesis, or will refute the hypothesis.

Therefore, it is essential that you develop a good hypothesis.

 CHARATERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS

1) Logical
2) Testable
3) Refutable
4) Positive
 1) LOGICAL

A good hypothesis is usually founded in established theories

or developed from the results of previous research.

Specifically, a good hypothesis should be the logical

conclusion of a logical argument.
 2) TESTABLE

 A good hypothesis must be testable; that is, it must be possible

to observe and measure all of the variables involved.

 In particular, the hypothesis must involve real situations, real

events, and real individuals.

 You cannot test a hypothesis that refers to imaginary events or

hypothetical situations.
 3) REFUTABLE

 One characteristic of a testable hypothesis is that it must be refutable;

that is, it must be possible to obtain research results that are contrary
to the hypothesis.

For Example:

If the hypothesis states that the treatment will cause an increase in

scores, it must be possible for the data to show no increase.
 3) REFUTABLE …….

 A refutable hypothesis, often called a falsifiable

hypothesis, is a critical component of the research
process.

 A non-refutable hypothesis, one that cannot be

demonstrated to be false, is inappropriate for the
scientific method.
 3) REFUTABLE …….

Consider the following hypotheses that are not

testable or refutable :

Hypothesis: The more sins a man commits, the less likely

he is to get into heaven.

Hypothesis: If old dogs could talk, they would spend most

of their time recalling about things they had smelled
during their lives.
 3) REFUTABLE …….

Hypothesis: If people could fly, there would be substantially fewer cases

of depression.

Hypothesis: The human mind emits thought waves that influence other
people, but that cannot be measured or recorded in any way.

Although you may find these hypotheses interesting, they cannot be

tested or shown to be false and, therefore, are unsuitable for scientific
research.
 4) POSITIVE

A final characteristic of a testable hypothesis is that it must

make a positive statement about the existence of
something, usually:

 The existence of a relationship

 The existence of a difference

 The existence of a treatment effect

 4) POSITIVE …..

The following are examples of such hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: For high school students, there will be a relationship between

intelligence and creativity.

Hypothesis 2: There will be a difference between the verbal skills of 3-year-

old girls and those of 3-year-old boys.

Hypothesis 3: The new therapy technique will produce significant

improvement for severely depressed patients.
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

Alternative
Null Hypothesis Hypothesis
(Ho)
(HI)
 NULL HYPOTHESIS
 The assumption that:

 No difference exists between two groups being compared

 No real difference exists between treatment conditions in an

experiment

 No significant relationship exists in a correlational study.

 Refers to the unexpected finding that study variables will not be related
in a meaningful way that is consistent with your theory and the results
of past research
 ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

 The alternative hypothesis is also known as Research

Hypothesis.

 The researcher’s hypothesis about the outcome of a

study.

 Refers to the expected finding that study variables will be

related in a meaningful way that is consistent with your
theory and the results of past research.
ACCEPT Null Hypotheses= the tested relationship do not exist

REJECT Null Hypotheses= the tested relationship does exist

 A One-Tailed A Two-Tailed Non-
Directional Directional
Hypothesis does
Hypothesis not state the
specifies the direction of the
direction of the relationship or
tested TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS difference, it
indicates only that
relationship or a relationship or
difference difference exists

Directional Non-Directional
Hypothesis Hypothesis
 Hypothesis Formation For
Correlational Research

Describing Prediction
Reliability and
Relationship (Explanatory
Validity
between Variables Research)
 Describing Relationship between Variables

Directional Hypothesis Non-directional Hypothesis

High score on Self-Esteem will be There will be a relationship

related to Low scores on Depression between Self-Esteem and
in Adolescents. Depression in Adolescents.
Self-Esteem will be negatively
related to depression in Adolescents.
Self-Esteem will be related to
Depression in Adolescents.
There will be a negative relationship
between Self-Esteem and
Depression in Adolescents.
 Prediction (Explanatory Research)

Directional Hypothesis Non-directional Hypothesis

Self-Esteem will predict There will be a predictive

Depression in Adolescents. relationship between Self-Esteem
and Depression in Adolescents.
Self-Esteem will lead to
Depression in Adolescents.
Predictor
(Independent)
Designation
of Two
Criterion/
Variables is Outcome
Quite Clear (Dependent)
 Prediction (Explanatory Research)

Directional Hypothesis Non-directional Hypothesis

Self-Esteem will contribute on to There will be a predictive

Depression in Adolescents. association and contribution of
Self-Esteem on to Depression in
Self-Esteem will explain the Adolescents
variance in the scores of
Depression in Adolescents.
Predictor Criterion/
Designation (Independent) Outcome
of Two (Dependent)
Variables is
Quite Clear
 Research Designs in
Non-Experimental Or Quasi Experimental Research

Between-Subjects Designs OR Within-Subjects Designs OR

Nonequivalent Group Design Pre–Post design

Differential Posttest-Only Pretest-Posttest One Group

Non-Equivalent Time-Series
Non-Equivalent Pretest-Posttest
Research Control Group Designs
Control Group Design
Make No Attempt HYPOTHESIS FORMATION Does Attempt to
to Control or Between-Subjects Minimize the Threat
Minimize Non-Equivalent Group Designs of Assignment Bias
Assignment Bias

Quasi
Non- Experimental
Experimental Research
Research Design Design

Differential Posttest-Only Pretest–Posttest

Non-Equivalent Nonequivalent
Research Control Group Control Group
 Differential Research

Directional Hypothesis Non-directional Hypothesis

Male Adolescents would score There will be a gender difference

high on Academic Performance on Academic Performance.
than Female Adolescents.

There will be a difference between

Male Adolescents and Female
Adolescents on the variable of
Academic Performance.
 Posttest-Only Non-Equivalent Control Group

Directional Hypothesis Non-directional Hypothesis

There will be difference in smoking

The Adolescents of X-High School rates between Adolescents of X-High
in Smoking Cessation Program School in Smoking Cessation Program
Group and Adolescents of Y-High
Group would have low smoking School in Control Group .
rates post program as compared
to Adolescents of Y-High School in There will be difference in smoking
the Control Group. rates between Adolescents in Smoking
Cessation Program Group and
Adolescents in Control Group.
The Adolescents in Smoking
Cessation Program Group would Adolescents in Smoking Cessation
score low on smoking rates post Program Group would score differently
program as compared to post program on smoking rates than
Adolescents in the Control Group. Adolescents in Control Group
 Posttest-Only Non-Equivalent Control Group

Directional Hypothesis Non-directional Hypothesis

There will be difference in

The Intervention Group would smoking rates between
have low smoking rates post Intervention Group and Control
program as compared to the Group .
Control Group.
Adolescents in Intervention
The Intervention Group would Group would score differently
score low on smoking rates post post program on smoking rates
program as compared to the than Control Group
Control Group.
 Pretest-Posttest Non-Equivalent Control Group

Directional Hypothesis Non-directional Hypothesis

The Adolescents in Smoking

Cessation Program Group would There will be difference in smoking
have lower smoking rates at rates between Adolescents in
Posttest than Adolescents in the Smoking Cessation Program Group
Control Group. and Adolescents in Control Group
at Posttest.
The Adolescents in Smoking
Cessation Program Group would There will be difference in smoking
have lower smoking rates at rates of Adolescents in Smoking
Posttest than in Pretest. Cessation Program Group at
Pretest and Posttest. OR
The Adolescents in Smoking
Cessation Program Group would
have same smoking rates at Pretest
Adolescents in Smoking Cessation
as compared to Adolescents in the Program Group would score
Control Group. differently at Pretest and Posttest.
 Pretest-Posttest Non-Equivalent Control Group

Directional Hypothesis Non-directional Hypothesis

The Intervention Group would

have lower smoking rates at There will be difference in smoking
Posttest than the Control Group. rates between Intervention Group
and Control Group at Posttest.
The Intervention Group would
have lower smoking rates at There will be difference in smoking
Posttest than in Pretest. rates of Intervention Group at
Pretest and Posttest.
The Adolescents in Smoking OR
Cessation Program Group
would have same smoking
rates at Pretest as compared Intervention Group would score
to Adolescents in the Control differently at Pretest and Posttest.
Group.
Make No Attempt Two Common Categories of Does Attempt to
to Control or Within-Subjects Minimize the Threat
Minimize
Assignment Bias
Pre-Post Designs of Assignment Bias

Quasi
Non- Experimental
Experimental Research
Research Design Design

One Group Pretest-

Time-Series Designs
Posttest Design
 One Group Pretest-Posttest Design

Directional Hypothesis Non-directional Hypothesis

The smoking rates of participants There will be difference in smoking

at Posttest would be lower than rates of participants between
smoking rates at Pretest. Pretest and Posttest.

The smoking rates of participants

at Posttest would be low as
compared to smoking rates at
Pretest.
 HYPOTHESIS TESTING
 Technically, researchers engaging in hypothesis testing are
evaluating the probability that a finding rejects or fails to reject
the null hypothesis.

 If the null hypothesis is rejected and the finding is consistent

with the alternative hypothesis, researchers say the alternative
hypothesis was supported by the results.

 NOTE: Researchers NEVER, EVER prove their hypothesis.

 Why? Because this is not a Perfect World

This is NOT a Perfect World

Why?
Sampling Error - Researchers are forced to study samples of people and
these samples do not necessarily represent all people.
 LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE

Many researchers have agreed on an acceptable level of

chance risk to take in their research:

 5 out of 100

 That is, if there is only a 5 in 100 chance that a finding is

due to error, then researchers consider the finding to be
statistically significant.

 Hence, p < .05.

THE PROBABILITY- THE CHANCE OF
ERROR
úu
 Because this is NOT a Perfect World

 There is nothing DEFINITE.

 Researchers are forced to evaluate the PROBABILITY that

the results of a study are due to chance

 The Probability of a finding refers to the CHANCE that the

finding is due to ERROR.
TYPE I & TYPE II ERRORS
Ho: You are Not Pregnant
HI: You are Pregnant
Accept the Reject the
Null Hypothesis Null Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis is True

“You are Not Pregnant CORRECT

DECISION

Null Hypothesis is False

“You are Pregnant” CORRECT

DECISION