CE1313 Properties of Materials

Thermal Properties of Materials

Lecture topics…..
• Heat Capacity

• Thermal Expansion

• Thermal Conductivity

• Thermal Stress

• Comparison of thermal properties with different

classes of materials

• Case Study: Thermal Protection of Space Shuttle

Learning outcomes
• Describe how do the different classes of materials respond to
heat

• Define and measure:

- heat capacity
- coefficient of thermal expansion
- thermal conductivity

• Calculate thermal stresses

• Describe the materials used in the thermal protection system of

the space shuttle and discuss why they were selected
Thermal Properties & Heat Capacity
• Response of a material to applied heat – generally expands
• Heat Capacity: measures the energy content of a material
• Quantitative: The energy required to increase the
temperature of the material energy input (J/mol)
heat capacity dQ
C temperature change (K)
(J/mol K) dT
Two ways to measure heat capacity:
-- Cp : Heat capacity at constant pressure.
-- Cv : Heat capacity at constant volume

We also define the specific heat (c) as energy per unit

mass per degree (J/kg-K).

Easier to measure mass than moles

Physical Basis
Atoms vibrate within the solid.
They are constrained by surrounding atoms because of
bonding.
Energy propagates like an elastic wave.
This is the basis for sound transmission.
Specific Heat Capacity Comparison
material c p (J/kg-K)
• Polymers at room T
Polypropylene 1925 c p : (J/kg-K)
Polyethylene 1850 Cp : (J/mol-K)
Polystyrene 1170
Teflon 1050
• Ceramics
Magnesia (MgO) 940
increasing cp

Alumina (Al 2O 3 ) 775

Glass 840
• Metals
Aluminum 900
Steel 486
Tungsten 128
Gold 138
Thermal Expansion
• Most materials expand when heated and contract
when cooled
L final  Linitial Tinit
 (Tfinal  Tinitial ) Linit
Linitial Tfinal
coefficient of Lfinal
thermal expansion (1/K)

Origin of thermal expansion: bond length

Bond energy increases with temperature
r(T 1)
r(T 5)

Bond length (r)

increasing T

T5
bond energy vs bond length
curve is “asymmetric”
T1 Adapted from Fig. 19.3(a), Callister 6e.
Thermal Expansion Comparison
• Q: Why does 
Material  (10 -6/K)
• Polymers at room T generally decrease
Polypropylene 145-180
Polyethylene 106-198 with increasing
Polystyrene 90-150
Teflon 126-216 bond energy?
• Metals
Aluminum 23.6
increasing 

Steel 12
Tungsten 4.5
Gold 14.2
• Ceramics
Magnesia (MgO) 13.5
Alumina (Al 2O 3 ) 7.6
Soda-lime glass 9
Silica (cryst. SiO 2 ) 0.4
Effects and Uses for Thermal Expansion

Damage from Thermal Expansion

Differential expansion can be used as

heat sensor and actuator

http://structures-www.cv.ic.ac.uk/examples/
Thermal Conductivity
• Ability of a material to transfer heat

temperature
dT
q  k gradient
heat flux dx
(J/m2-s)
thermal conductivity (J/m-K-s)

T1 T2 > T 1
x1 heat flux x2

• Atomic view: Atomic vibrations in hotter region

carry energy (vibrations) to cooler regions
Thermal Conductivity Comparison
Material k (W/m-K) Energy Transfer
• Metals
Aluminum 247 By vibration of
Steel 52 atoms and
Tungsten 178 motion of
Gold 315 electrons
• Ceramics
increasing k

Magnesia (MgO) 38
Alumina 39 By vibration of
Soda-lime glass 1.7 atoms
Silica 1.4
• Polymers
Polypropylene 0.12 By vibration/
Polyethylene 0.46-0.50 rotation of chain
Polystyrene 0.13 molecules
Teflon 0.25
Ceramic Tiles
Thermal Stresses
Occurs due to:
• uneven heating/cooling
• mismatch in thermal expansion
• restrained thermal expansion/contraction

T room
L
Lroom L   thermal  (T  Troom )
Lroom
T
  E( thermal )  E(T  Troom )

compressive  keeps L = 0
Question (from Callister)
Brass rod – ends held rigid. Stress free at 20°C.
What is max. temp without exceeding a compressive
stress of 172 MPa given E=100 GPa

  E ( thermal )   E (T f  T0 )


T f  T0 
E
 172
 20 
(100  103 MPa )[20  10 6 (C ) 1 ]
 20C  86C  106C
Case Study: Thermal Protection of Space Shuttle

• Maintain inner airframe below 175 °C

• Remain usable for 100 missions
• Smooth outer surface
• Low-density materials
• Withstand temperature extremes: -110 – 1260 °C
• Resistant to thermal gradiants & thermally induced stresses
• Low absorption of water during missions
• Adhere to aluminium alloy airframe

No single material can achieve all of these requirements

Case Study: Thermal Protection of Space Shuttle
Not all of the surface of the shuttle experience the same temp.
CES Software
Max service temp for
polymers
Thermal protection: components
Thermal protection: components
Felt reusable surface insulation FRSI:

•Nylon material coated with silicone elastomer

silicone provides water proofing, thermal protection
& reflects radiation
•Attached to airframe (Al) using a silicone adhesive
Thermal protection: FRSI
Felt reusable surface insulation FRSI

• Why use nylon?

• Low density  = 1.14 g/cm3

• Produce strong fibres by drawing

– orientate crystals and
amorphous regions

Draw Ratio E (GPa)

1 1.97
3 3.70
5 5.77
Aligning Crystalline Polymers
Modulus dependent of polymer chain orientation
• Random arrangement of chains
• - amorphous (“glassy”) polymers:
• strong covalent chain bonds pointing
in all directions
• weak secondary bonds between chains
 low modulus material (E = 3GPa)

• Aligned arrangement of chains

• - crystalline polymers:
• strong covalent chain bonds in one direction
 high modulus material along chains (E=200GPa)
Thermal protection: FRSI
• PROBLEM! FRSI max operating temp: 400°C

Tm (nylon) = 270°C
Above Tm, nylon will flow!
Coat nylon with silicone rubber!
Silicone rubber (crosslinked) : No Tm, thermally stable up to 400°C

Why adhere felt mat to Al frame using silicone rubber?

R

Si O
Tg (silicone) = -123°C
R
Thermally stable bonds
Damp large vibrations (R represents side group composed
Of C, O, maybe F and a crosslinking site)
Thermal Protection: Ceramic Tiles
• More rigid restrictions on material selection on Space Shuttle in the
temperature range 400 – 1260°C

• Must use ceramics

• Produce porous tiles

• 78% Silica fibres + 22% borosilicate

• Low coefficient of thermal expansion (0.4 °C-1 and relatively low

modulus of elasticity (73GPa)  resistant to thermal shock
Thermal Protection: Ceramic Tiles
• How are the 24,300 ceramic tiles attached to the airframe?

• How are the brittle ceramic tiles cushioned from large

mechanical and thermal strains?

 Strain isolator pad (SIP) (which is attached using silicone rubber)

silicone rubber

nylon felt
Space Shuttle Columbia
Thermal Protection: Reinforced Carbon-Carbon
• Nose of Space Shuttle reach temperatures as high as 1650°C 
can not use ceramic tiles!

• Use reinforced carbon-carbon composite

• Graphite: heat resistant, low coefficient of thermal expansion 2

x 10-6 (°C)-1 high strength, modulus, but oxidises quickly –
problem upon re-entry

• Coat with SiC which is more resistant to oxidation, but graphite

is fairly unreactive
- therefore coat graphite with amorphous C which will react
with the SiC SiC
graphite

carbon
Summary
• Different materials respond to heat in different ways

• Most energy assimilated by solids is associated with increasing

the vibrational energy of the atoms

• Thermal conduction occurs via different mechanisms

• Thermal stresses may arise due to expansion (or contraction)

• No single material can be used to meet all the requirements for

the Space Shuttle Thermal Protection System
Resources

• Callister: Chapter 19