1 Lec 1 Basics On Fluid Properties (Updated 25,11,04)

Applied hydraulics, dams and other hydraulic structures
WREM
ECTS 4
LTLH (2, 1, 1, 4)
Course content
• Brief introduction on: (4hr)
Fluid mechanics, fluid properties, mechanics and dynamics of fluid flow, hydrostatics and
fundamentals of open channel and closed conduit flow and hydraulic structures.
• The general aspects of positive and negative impacts of dam/reservoir
• Reservoir planning (4hr)
• Detail on reservoir planning
Selection of dam site, zone of storage in reservoir, storage capacity and yield
Dams(2hr)
• Types of dams
• Selection factors
 Gravity dam (concrete dam) (6hr)
1. Forces on gravity dam, and stability analysis
2. Profiles of gravity dam, height of gravity dam and its limitation
3. Design methods
4. Galleries and joints
 Embankment dams (Earth and rock fill dams)(5hr)

1. Classification of Embankment dams
2. Design criteria
3. Seepage , downstream drainage system
4. Dam stability of upstream and downstream face of the dam
5. Causes of failure of embankment dams
February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 1

 Arch and buttress dam (4hr)
1. Definitions , types of arch and buttress dams
2. Design methods and forces acting on the dam
 Spill way and stilling basin (3hr)
1. Definition and types
2. Design considerations and methods
 Design of diversion weir (2hr)
1. Site investigation, (geologic and topographic survey, hydrological studies)
2. Structural analysis, seepage and uplift pressure on the foundation
3. Sediment (silt) control or excluding structures
4. Energy dissipaters
5. Drop structure
6. Common problems in hydraulic structures
Assessment
Two quizzes each 10%
Seminar, mini project 20%
Assignment 20%
Final exam 40%
Attendance requirement 80%

References
• Arora, K.R. Irrigation and water power engineering 2000

• Chadwick, Morfett and Borthwick,, hydraulics in civil engineering, 4 th ed. 2004
• Garg S.K., Irrigation engineering and hydraulic structures and 14 th ed. 1999
• Punmia B.C irrigation and water power engineering, 12 th ed. 1992
• Streeter, fluid mechanics 9th ed. 1997
• White, F.M., Fluid mechanics 5 th ed. 2002
• Roberson,J.A, CassidyJ.J.,Chjaudhry M.H, Hydraulic Engineering, 1998
• Novak, P., A.I.B. Moffat , C. Nalluri and R. Narayanan, Hydraulic structures, 2001

Lecture 1
BASICS IN FLUID MECHANICS

Fluid:
definitions, properties and basic concepts
 A fluid is a substance that flows under the action of shearing

forces. If a fluid is at rest, we know that the forces on it are in
balance.
 Classified in to two : gas and liquid
 A gas: a fluid that is easily compressed. It fills any vessel in
which it is contained (compressible)
 A liquid: given mass of liquid will occupy a fixed volume,
irrespective of the size of the container (constant density)

Density
The density of a fluid is defined as its mass per unit
volume. It is denoted by the Greek symbol, .
kg  water= 998 kgm-3
= m
kgm-3 V m3 air =1.2kgm-3
If the density is constant (most liquids), the flow is

incompressible.
(Although gases are easy to compress, the flow may be treated as

incompressible if there are no large pressure fluctuations)
Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engineering

M.SC. In WREM 2007 E.C
February 1, 2024 6
Pressure
Pressure is the force per unit area, where the force is
perpendicular to the area.
N pa= 105 Nm-2
p= F
Nm-2 A 1psi =6895Pa
(Pa) m2
Pressure :
• Absolute pressure, the pressure compared to a
vacuum.
• Gauge pressure , it is pressure compared to
atmospheric pressure (ex. Pressure in tire)
Pressure
Pressure in a fluid acts equally in all directions
Pressure in a static liquid increases linearly with depth
p= g  h increase in
h
pressure p
increase depth (m)
The pressure at a given depth in a continuous, static body of

liquid is constant.
p1 p3 p1 = p2 = p3
p2

Measuring pressure: Manometers
p1 = px (negligible pressure
change in a gas)
p1 (since they are at
p2=pa px = py
the same height)
z pz = p2 = pa
h
x y py - pz = gh
liquid p1 - pa = gh
density 
So a manometer measures gauge pressure.

Measuring Pressure: Barometers
A barometer is used to measure vacuum p1 = 0

the pressure of the atmosphere.
The simplest type of barometer
consists of a column of fluid.
p2 - p1 = gh h
pa = gh p2 = p a
examples
water: h = pa/g =105/(103*9.8) ~10m
mercury: h = pa/g =105/(13.4*103*9.8)
~800mm
Peizometric Pressure and peizometric head
 Piezometric pressure = elevation pressure + static pressure.

 In horizontal pipe, the elevation pressure and elevation head are
zero everywhere in all pipes, and the pressures computed by the
calculation are the static pressures in the pipes.
 However, if the pipes are sloping, you need to subtract the
elevation pressure from the computed piezometric pressure in
order to obtain static pressure.
 Alternatively, instead of selecting "Compute pressures in m of
fluid", you could select "Compute pressures in N/m2 or Pa".

Pressure in fluids at rest
 Due to the fundamental nature of fluids, a fluid cannot remain at
rest under the presence of a shear stress. However, fluids can
exert pressure normal to any contacting surface.
 If a point in the fluid is thought of as an infinitesimally small cube,
then it follows from the principles of equilibrium that the pressure on
every side of this unit of fluid must be equal. If this were not the
case, the fluid would move in the direction of the resultant force.

Pressure in fluids at rest
 The pressure is isotropic i.e., it acts in all directions and having equal
magnitude . This characteristic allows fluids to transmit force through the
length of pipes or tubes; i.e., a force applied to a fluid in a pipe is
transmitted, via the fluid, to the other end of the pipe.
 This concept was first formulated, in a slightly extended form, by the French
mathematician B. Pascal in 1647 and would later be known as Pascal Law.
This law has many important applications in hydraulics (Fluid mechanics)

Hydrostatic pressure
 Pressure is a function of gravitational acceleration and

other accelerations in the direction considered (s)
p
 as 
s
for n in the normal directiont of flow
p
 an
n
v2
an 
r
r is the radius of curvature

Hydrostatic pressure distribution
Q
h
o
P
θ
P  h cos 
force on the face is given by
h2
Fp   cos 
2
Basic Fluid Dynamics
Viscosity
Resistance to flow; momentum diffusion
Low viscosity: Air
High viscosity: Honey
Kinematic viscosity

Reynolds Number
 The Reynolds Number (Re) is a non-dimensional number that
reflects the balance between viscous and inertial forces and
hence relates to flow instability (i.e., the onset of turbulence)
 Re = ρDv/μ=v L/n
 L is a characteristic length in the system
 Dominance of viscous force leads to laminar flow (low
velocity, high viscosity, confined fluid)
 Dominance of inertial force leads to turbulent flow (high
velocity, low viscosity, unconfined fluid)

Poiseuille Flow
 In a slit or pipe, the velocities at the walls are zero (no-slip
boundaries) and the velocity reaches its maximum in the
middle
 The velocity profile in a slit is parabolic and given by:
G 2
u( x )  (a  x 2 )
2 u(x)
• G can be gravitational acceleration or (linear)

pressure gradient (Pin – Pout)/L x=0 x=a
Hawassa university institute of technology Dam

February 1, 2024 Engineering M.SC. In WREM 2007 E.C 18
Flow hydraulics:
• Open channel flow
• Closed conduit flow type
Liquid flow under the force of

gravity and/or pressure with no
free surface is called open
channel flow.
Liquid flow with free surface at

atmospheric pressure is called
open channel flow.

Open Channel Flow hydraulics
Expression of parameters A, p, R of open channel are rather
complex, even for the simplest case of trapezoidal cross section (Fig.
2.2):
B
Fig. 2.1 The main
h geometrical
A parameters of open
p flow cross section
m m Fig. 2.2 Geometric

h
b parameters of trapezoidal
cross section
p
• A=bh+mh2; p  b  2h 1  m 2 ; R=A/p; B=b+2mh. Here m is

slope coefficient, accepted from properties of ground forming
the channel.
• Longitudinal profile parameters include hydraulic gradient
I=H/L and bottom slope i =Z/L, where H and Z are
drop of hydrodynamic head and elevation head on length
reach L (Fig. 2.3)
1
H
2
h1
H2 z h2
z1 1 L H2 Parameters of open flow
longitudinal profile
z2
0 2 0
• Velocity at which bed of a channel is not eroded, but exceeding of which starts
scour of bed, is called permissible non-scouring velocity.
• It depends on type of ground forming bed and slopes of a channel and varies
within limits 0.30 m/s for fine sand to 1,90 m/s for rough gravel and boulders.
• Permissible non-scouring velocity may be increased by lining of bottom and
slopes of a channel.
• Lining by concrete pates on layer of gravel increases ability of channel to resist
scour up to velocities (2.0 – 2.5) m/s.
• Channels are designed for uniform water flow with constant water depth
along it h1 = h2. For such regime of flow hydraulic gradient I = H/L
corresponds to bottom slope i = z/L
February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engineering M.SC. In WREM 2007 E.C 22
Energy of flow cross-section
• Open water flow contains definite mechanical energy, expressed
in relative units of length. Energy of flow cross section may be
characterized in Bernulli equation terms
p v 2
E  z 
g 2g
• If the energy is recorded with respect of data plane 0-0 at the
level of the lowest point of cross section, point z is taken on free
surface (Fig. 2.4), where z = h and p = 0,the expression of
energy obtains such shape
v 2
E  h
February 1, 2024
2g
Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 23
A A
B h
h
hc
0 0 0
0 Emin E
Fig. 2.4 Open flow cross section energy-depth relationship

• Substituting v by Q/A the energy may be rewritten
Q 2
E  h
2gA 2
• It is evident from expression of the energy E, that increasing h

leads to increment of the first part of E expression and decrement
of the next part of it. At h = 0 E =  as well as at h = .
• The energy E obtains minimal magnitude at definite magnitude of

h corresponding
dE
 0
dh

From this condition equalizing derivative to zero leads to
Q 2 dA
1  0
gA 3 dh
But dA
dh
 B , what allows to rewrite as
Q 2 B
3
1
gA
• Equation expreses minimal energy Emin condition
• Depth corresponding minimal energy hc is called critical depth
• The field of depth h is divided into two parts h < hc and h > hc, which are called
supercritical and subcritical flow states.

• Subcritical state may be recognized from and smooth free surface of the flow.
• Supercritical flow has wavy free surface and stormy motion of water.
• Each energy magnitude E > Emin corresponds two different depth h1 < hc and h2 < hc.
• Thus, state of flow may be recognized comparing h with hc. Critical depth hc in general
may be determined constructing relationship curve. Point of it corresponding
allows to read hc. Q 2 B
3
1
gA
A A
B h
h
hc
0 0 0
0 Emin E
Fig. 2.5 Open flow cross section energy-depth relationship

• For the case of rectangular cross section B = b and A = bh., what allows to
solve with respect to hc and to receive formula for direct computation of
critical depth
Q 2
hc  3
gb 2
• Let Q/A substituted by v & A/b denoted by ha and name as average flow
depth.
Q 2 B v 2
3
  Fr
gA gh
is called Froude number, which is used to recognize state of open channel flow:
when Fr < 1 flow is subcritical; when Fr = 1 – critical; when Fr > 1 flow is
supercritical.

• Hydraulic jump (energy
a b c
Fig. 2.6 Hydraulic jump at gates (a), spillway (b), reach with h<hc (c)

HYDRAULICS OF CLOSED CONDUIT
FLOW
 Synonyms
- closed conduit flow
- pipe flow
- pressurized flow

CLOSED CONDUIT FLOW HYDRAULICS
 Closed Conduit vs. Open Channel
Closed Conduit Open Channel
No free surface Free water surface
Gravity or pump driven Gravity driven

Cavitation & other sub- Waves & other surface
atmospheric-pressure disturbances
problems
Reynolds Number Re Froude Number Fr

 Reynolds Number (ratio of inertia force to viscous
force) VD VD
Re  
V = velocity (ft/sec)  
D = pipe diameter (ft)
 = density of fluid (lbm/ft3)
 = dynamic viscosity of fluid (lbm/ftsec or lbfsec/ft2)
 = kinematic viscosity (ft2/sec)

 Froud Number (ratio of inertia force to

gravitational force)
V
 V = velocity
Fr 
gh
g = gravitational acceleration
h = depth of water

 Turbulent vs. laminar flow

Velocity of flow
Turbulent flow Laminar flow

Concepts – uniform & steady flow
 Uniform flow – constant characteristics with

respect to space
 Steady flow – constant characteristics with
respect to time. Often adopted when
establishing pipe system design parameters
(pressure & flow at certain locations). Consider
unsteady (transient) phenomena to refine
design (pipe pressure class and thickness)

Conservation of Mass
Control Volume
1
2
dS
 I O
dt
Conservation of Mass (continuity)
 For steady & incompressible flow,

dS/dt = 0
I=O
V1A1 = V2A2
 ViAi = VoAo
Q y
T  0
x t
unsteady nonuniform flow

Conservation of Mass
 Apply to a pipe junction, Q1+Q2 = Q3+Q4

Conservation of Momentum
 Newton’s 2nd law – the resultant of all external

forces on a system is equal to the time rate of
change of momentum of this system
d mV 
 F ext  dt

 Consider this control volume (CV) of fluid in a

pipe elbow
x1=v1t
1 1
’
2
2’ x2=v2t

 In a time t the fluid originally at Section 1

moves to 1’, and that at Section 2 moves to 2’
 The control volume lost momentum equal to
that of the fluid contained between 1 and 1’
(A1x1)V1 = A1V12t = (QV1)t
At the same time it gained momentum (QV2)t

 The time rate of change of momentum is (QV2)-

(QV1)
 Hence, the 2nd Law becomes
F ext
 Q V out V in 
 This is the momentum equation for steady flow.
○ QVx1  Fx = QVx2
○ QVy1  Fy = QVy2

 Where  depends on the direction of the force w.r.t.
the coordinate system

Application of Momentum Eq.
 Forces on a pipe elbow:

Taking momentum balance in the x direction,
QV1 + (PA)1 – Fx = Q(0)
Fx = (PA)1 + QV1

Application of Momentum Eq.
Taking momentum balance in the y direction,
External y force = (PA)2 - Fy
Rate of change of momentum = QV2 (where V2 is in

the negative direction)
(PA)2 - Fy = QV2
Fy = (PA)2 - QV2
= (PA)2 + QV2

CLOSED CONDUIT
Conservation of Energy
FLOW HYDRAULICS
 In pipeline design, most often consider

steady state – flow not varying with time -
first
 Steady state (SS) Bernoulli Equation
along a streamline:
p V1
2
1
 z1  h p 
p V 2
2
2
 z 2  ht  h
 2g  2g

Energy equation
V2 Energy Grade Line
Velocity head  Hydraulic G L
2g
static head pressure p

head 
Why is static head
important?
z elevation
pump
z=0 datum
p1 V12 p2 V22
 1  z1  h p  2  z 2  ht  hL
 2g  2g
February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engi 47
neering M.SC. In WREM 2007 E.C
 Pressure head p/

 Head supplied by pump hp
 Head supplied to turbine ht
 Elevation head z
 Velocity head V2/2g
 Piezometric head p/ + z
(hydraulic grade line)
 Total head p/ + z + V2/2g
(energy grade line)
 Head Loss h

Closed conduit Flow hydraulics
Head Losses
 Include mostly 2 types of losses:
1. Friction Loss
- resulting from friction between the fluid
and pipe wall
2. Minor Loss
- resulting from pipe entrance,
transition, exit, valve and other in-line
structures

Friction Loss
 Most useful head loss equation for closed-

conduit flow – Darcy-Weisbach equation
Pipe
length
Friction head loss
Pipe
velocity
2
LV
h f  f D 2g
Dimensionless Gravitational
Friction Pipe acceleration
coefficient diameter

Friction Loss
 Darcy-Weisbach equation
- derived from basic relationships of physics
-  dimensionless, app. to all unit systems
-  determined from experimental data
 Other friction loss relationships – Hazen-Wiliams,
Manning, Chezy, etc. – are also used in the industry,
but are less accurate and will not be discussed here

Darcy-Weisbach 
 Laminar flow (Re<2000)

64
f 
Re
Turbulent flow in smooth pipes (Re>4000)
1
f
 2 log Re  
f  0. 8

Darcy-Weisbach  (cont’d)
 Turbulent flow in rough pipes

1 e
 1.14  2 log 
f  D
Transition between turbulent smooth and
rough pipes
1 e 2.51 
 2 log  D  
f  3.7 Re f 
 

Friction Loss

Darcy-Weisbach 
 Most recent development of Darcy Weisbach coefficient - Explicit
equation [Swamee and Jain, 1976] applicable to entire turbulent
flow regime (smooth, transition and rough pipes):
0.25
f  2
  e 5 . 74 
log  
 0.9

  3 . 7 D Re 

Minor Loss
 Use minor loss coefficient (k) in this form

2
hl 2 g
 k V

Minor Loss

Minor Loss
 For abrupt expansion, from D1 to D2, the loss
coefficient may be estimated by
2
2   
2

V1 k  1   D  
hl 2 g
 k 1
  D2  
 

Minor Loss

Example – using HGL & EGL

1 Lec 1 Basics On Fluid Properties (Updated 25,11,04)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 Lec 1 Basics On Fluid Properties (Updated 25,11,04)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Applied hydraulics, dams and other hydraulic structures

 Embankment dams (Earth and rock fill dams)(5hr)

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 1

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 2

• Arora, K.R. Irrigation and water power engineering 2000

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 3

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 4

 A fluid is a substance that flows under the action of shearing

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 5

If the density is constant (most liquids), the flow is

(Although gases are easy to compress, the flow may be treated as

Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engineering

The pressure at a given depth in a continuous, static body of

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 8

So a manometer measures gauge pressure.

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 9

A barometer is used to measure vacuum p1 = 0

 Piezometric pressure = elevation pressure + static pressure.

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 11

 Due to the fundamental nature of fluids, a fluid cannot remain at

rest under the presence of a shear stress. However, fluids can

exert pressure normal to any contacting surface.

 If a point in the fluid is thought of as an infinitesimally small cube,

then it follows from the principles of equilibrium that the pressure on

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 12

magnitude . This characteristic allows fluids to transmit force through the

length of pipes or tubes; i.e., a force applied to a fluid in a pipe is

transmitted, via the fluid, to the other end of the pipe.

mathematician B. Pascal in 1647 and would later be known as Pascal Law.

This law has many important applications in hydraulics (Fluid mechanics)

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 13

 Pressure is a function of gravitational acceleration and

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 14

Resistance to flow; momentum diffusion

Low viscosity: Air

High viscosity: Honey

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 16

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 17

• G can be gravitational acceleration or (linear)

Hawassa university institute of technology Dam

Liquid flow under the force of

Liquid flow with free surface at

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 19

m m Fig. 2.2 Geometric

• A=bh+mh2; p  b  2h 1  m 2 ; R=A/p; B=b+2mh. Here m is

along it h1 = h2. For such regime of flow hydraulic gradient I = H/L

corresponds to bottom slope i = z/L

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 24

• It is evident from expression of the energy E, that increasing h

• The energy E obtains minimal magnitude at definite magnitude of

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 25

From this condition equalizing derivative to zero leads to

• Equation expreses minimal energy Emin condition

• Depth corresponding minimal energy hc is called critical depth

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 26

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 27

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 28

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 29

February 1, 2024 Hawassa university institute of technology Dam Engin 30

Gravity or pump driven Gravity driven

Hawassa university institute of technology Dam

Hawassa university institute of technology Dam