PROPOSED TOPICS FOR SEM 1

COMMUNICATION SKILLS
FEBRUARY----JUNE 2021
TOPIC 1: Tenses
Topic 2: Relative Pronouns
Topic 3: Subject & Object Pronouns
Topic 4: Conjunctions
Topic 5: Types of sentence
Topic 6: IF Clause
Topic 7: Correlatives
Topic 8: Active/Passive Voices
Topic 9: Quantitative Adjectives.
Topic 10: Subject-verb agreement.
Topic 11: The bare infinitives
Topic 12: Essays.
PROPOSED TOPICS FOR SEM 1
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
FEBRUARY----JUNE 2021
TOPIC 1: Tenses
Topic 2: Relative Pronouns
Topic 3: Subject & Object Pronouns
Topic 4: Conjunctions
 CONTENTS

• INTRODUCTION
• CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TIME FRAME
• CLASSIFICATION BASED ON ASPECT
• BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TENSES
• LIST OF RULES
• PRESENT TENSE
• PAST TENSE
• FUTURE TENSE
• LIST OF EXAMPLES
 INTRODUCTION

THE WORD TENSE IS DERIVED

FROM LATIN WORD “TEMPUS” WHICH
MEANS TIME. A VERB INDICATES THE
TIME OF AN ACTION, EVENT OR
CONDITION BY CHANGING ITS FORM.
 BASED ON TIME FRAME

THE VERB TENSES MAY BE

CATEGORIZED ACCORDING TO THE TIME
FRAME:
• PRESENT TENSE
• PAST TENSE
• FUTURE TENSE
PRESENT TENSE :---
PRESENT TENSE EXPRESSES AN
UNCHANGING, REPEATED, OR REOCCURRING
ACTION OR SITUATION THAT EXISTS ONLY NOW.
IT CAN ALSO REPRESENT A WIDESPREAD TRUTH.
PAST TENSE :---
PAST TENSE EXPRESSES AN ACTION
OR SITUATION THAT WAS STARTED AND
FINISHED IN THE PAST.
FUTURE TENSE :---
FUTURE TENSE EXPRESSES AN
ACTION OR SITUATION THAT WILL OCCUR IN
THE FUTURE.
CONTENTS
 BASED ON ASPECT

VERB TENSES MAY ALSO BE CATEGORIZED

ACCORDING TO ASPECT. ASPECT REFERS TO THE
NATURE OF THE ACTION DESCRIBED BY THE
VERB. THERE ARE FOUR ASPECTS:
• INDEFINITE OR SIMPLE
• CONTINUOUS OR PROGRESSIVE
• PERFECT OR COMPLETE
• PERFECT CONTINUOUS
INDEFINITE TENSE
AN INDEFINITE TENSE, OR SIMPLE TENSE, DESCRIBES AN
ACTION WHICH IS HABITUAL, REGULAR IN LIFE OF SOMEONE. IT ALSO
DESCRIBES A NATURAL OCCURRENCES SUCH AS THE RISING AND
SETTING OF THE SUN, FALLING OF RAINS ETC.

CONTINUOUS TENSE
THE CONTINUOUS TENSE, INCOMPLETE TENSE, OR
PROGRESSIVE TENSES. IT DESCRIBES AN ONGOING EVENT AT THE
TIME OF REPORTING.

PERFECT TENSE
THIS TENSE GIVES THREE DIFFERENT TIMES: A RECENT PAST,
A REGULAR TIME AND NEAR FUTURE TIME.

PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

THIS TENSE DESCRIBES A REGULAR EVENT OR ACTION
WHICH STARTED IN THE PAST AND CONTINUES TO THE PRESENT . THAT
EVENT OR ACTION REPEATS ITSELF IN THE LIFE OF THE PERSON OR
THE THING.

CONTENTS
THERE ARE TWELVE POSSIBLE
VERB TENSES.

Verb Tenses

Present Past Future

Present Indefinite Past Indefinite Future Indefinite

Present Continuous Past Continuous Future Continuous
Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect
Present Perfect Cont. Past Perfect Cont. Future Perfect Cont.

CONTENTS
 HERE IS A LIST OF RULES OF
THESE TENSES:
Perfect
Simple Progressive Perfect
Progressive
Forms Forms Forms
Forms
am/is/are + have/ have/has
Ist form +
Present s / es
Ist form + has + been + Ist
ing 3rd form form + ing
was/were + had been +
had +
Past 2nd form Ist form +
3rd form
Ist form +
ing ing
will have will have
will/shall will be + Ist
Future + Ist form form + ing
+ 3rd been + Ist
form form + ing

CONTENTS
PRESENT TENSE

Present

Present
IndefiniteTense

Present
Continuous
Tense

Present Perfect
Tense

Present Perfect
Cont.Tense
 PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE

THE SIMPLE PRESENT IS USED TO DESCRIBE

AN ACTION, AN EVENT, OR CONDITION THAT OCCURS
REGULARLY OR REPEATS ITSELF IN THE LIFE OF SOMEONE
OF SOMETHING
FOR EXAMPLE—
1. JOHN PLAYS FOOTBALL.
2. WE LEARN AT SCHOOL.
3. AMINA SELLS FOOD.
 PRESENT CONTINUOUS
TENSE

THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS EMPHASIZES

THE CONTINUING NATURE OF AN ACT, EVENT, OR
CONDITION.
FOR EXAMPLE—
1. JOHN IS PLAYING FOOTBALL.
2. WE ARE LEARNING AT SCHOOL.
3. AMINA IS SELLING FOOD.
 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE IS USED TO

DESCRIBE ACTION THAT BEGAN IN THE PAST AND CONTINUES
INTO THE PRESENT OR HAS JUST BEEN COMPLETED.
FOR EXAMPLE—
1. JOHN HAS PLAYED FOOTBALL.
2. WE HAVE LEARNED AT SCHOOL.
3. AMINA HAS SOLD FOOD.
 PRESENT PERFECT
CONT.TENSE

THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS IS

USED TO DESCRIBE AN ACTION, EVENT, OR CONDITION
THAT HAS BEGUN IN THE PAST AND CONTINUES INTO THE
PRESENT.
FOR EXAMPLE—
1. JOHN HAS BEEN PLAYING FOOTBALL.
2. WE HAVE BEEN LEARNING AT SCHOOL.
3. AMINA HAS BEEN SELLING FOOD.

CONTENTS
PAST TENSE

Past

Past
IndefiniteTense

Past
Continuous
Tense

Past Perfect
Tense

Past Perfect
Cont.Tense
 PAST INDEFINITE TENSE

THE SIMPLE PAST IS USED TO DESCRIBE AN

ACTION, AN EVENT, OR CONDITION THAT OCCURRED IN THE
PAST. IT DOES NOT INDICATE ANY DURATION OR PERIOD OF
THE EVENT.
FOR EXAMPLE—
1. JOHN PLAYED FOOTBALL.
2. WE LEARNED AT SCHOOL.
3. AMINA SOLD FOOD.
 PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE IS USED TO DESCRIBE AN

ONGOING EVENT IN THE PAST WHICH WAS INTERRUPTED BY ANOTHER
ACTION. THE FIRST ACTION IS REPORTED IN THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
AND THE SECOND ACTION IS REPORTED IN THE PAST SIMPLE.
FOR EXAMPLE—
1. JOHN WAS PLAYING FOOTBALL WHEN WE GOT TO THE SCHOOL.
2. WE WERE LEARNING AT SCHOOL WHEN IT STARTED RAINING.
3. AMINA WAS SELLING FOOD WHEN I MET HER.
 PAST PERFECT TENSE

THE PAST PERFECT TENSE IS USED TO REFER TO ACTIONS

THAT TOOK PLACE AND WERE COMPLETED IN THE PAST. THE MEANING OF
THIS TENSE IS NOT DIFFERENT FROM THE PAST SIMPLE HOWEVER, THE TWO
TENSES COULD BE USED TO DENOTE TWO DIFFERENT ACTIONS WHICH
STARTED AND FINISHED AT DIFFERENT TIMES. THE FIRST EVENT IS REPORTED
IN THE PAST PERFECT AND SECOND IS REPORTED IN THE PAST SIMPLE.
FOR EXAMPLE—
1. JOHN HAD PLAYED FOOTBALL.
2. WE HAD LEARNED AT SCHOOL
3. AMINA HAD SOLD FOOD.
 PAST PERFECT CONT.TENSE

THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS IS USED

TO INDICATE THAT A CONTINUING ACTION IN THE PAST
BEGAN AT A POINT IN TIME AND ENDED AT A POINT IN TIME.
AT THE TIME OF REPORTING THAT ACTION IS STOPPED.
FOR EXAMPLE—
1. JOHN HAD BEEN PLAYING FOOTBALL.
2. WE HAD BEEN LEARNING AT SCHOOL.
3. AMINA HAD BEEN SELLING FOOD.

CONTENTS
FUTURE TENSE

Future

Future
IndefiniteTense

Future
Continuous
Tense

Future Perfect
Tense

Future Perfect
Cont.Tense
 FUTURE INDEFINITE TENSE

THE SIMPLE FUTURE IS USED TO REFER TO

ACTIONS THAT WILL TAKE PLACE AFTER THE ACT OF
SPEAKING OR WRITING. IT IS ALSO USED TO SHOW AN
INDEFINITE FUTURE PLAN.
FOR EXAMPLE—
1. JOHN WILL PLAY FOOTBALL.
2. WE SHALL LEARN AT SCHOOL.
3. AMINA WILL SELL FOOD.
 FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE IS USED

TO DESCRIBE AN IMMEDIATE ACTION IN THE FUTURE. THE
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE IS USED TO REFER TO A NEAR
FUTURE ACTION THAT WILL OCCUR IN THE FUTURE.
FOR EXAMPLE—
1. JOHN WILL BE PLAYING FOOTBALL.
2. WE SHALL BE LEARNING AT SCHOOL.
3. AMINA WILL BE SELLING FOOD.
 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

THE FUTURE PERFECT IS USED TO REFER TO AN

ACTION THAT WILL BE COMPLETED SOMETIME IN THE FUTURE
WHEN THAT ACTION IS PRE-DETERMINED BY ANOTHER FUTURE
ACTION WHICH IS ALWAYS IN THE PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE.
FOR EXAMPLE—
1. JOHN WILL HAVE PLAYED FOOTBALL.
2. WE SHALL HAVE LEARNED AT SCHOOL.
3. AMINA WILL HAVE SOLD FOOD.
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
TENSE
THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE IS USED TO
INDICATE A CONTINUING FUTURE ACTION THAT WILL BE
COMPLETED AT SOME SPECIFIED TIME IN THE FUTURE BUT HAS
BEEN CANCELLED BY AN EVIDENCE OF THE PRESENT INFORMATION
FOR EXAMPLE—
1. JOHN WILL HAVE BEEN PLAYING FOOTBALL.
2. WE SHALL HAVE BEEN LEARNING AT SCHOOL.
3. AMINA WILL HAVE BEEN SELLING FOOD.

CONTENTS
 HERE IS A LIST OF EXAMPLES OF THESE
TENSES AND THEIR DEFINITIONS:

Perfect
Simple Progressive Perfect
Progressive
Forms Forms Forms
Forms

I have I have been

Present I play I am playing
played playing

I was I had I had been

Past I played
playing played playing

I shall I shall have

I shall I shall be
Future play playing
have been
played playing
 DISCUSSION OF TENSES
Tense in every language helps to give
accurate information. Tense talks about
time of action.
Examples: 1. Present simple tense
2. past simple tense
3. Present continuous.
4. Future tense
5. Future continuous. Etc.
 PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE
• PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE WHICH IS ALSO REFERRED TO AS HABITUAL TENSE IS USED TO
DENOTE AN ACTION OR EVENT WHICH REPEATS ITSELF IN LIFE. NATURAL PHENOMENA
LIKE RAINING, SUN SHINE AND EARTH QUAKE ARE MOST OFTEN DESCRIBED USING THE
ABOVE TENSE.

• EXAMPLES:

• JOHN READS BOOKS AT SCHOOL.

• SHE SELLS IN THE MARKET.

• WE SING AT HOME IN THE EVENING.

• RAIN FALLS IN GHANA

• MY BROTHERS WORK AT OSU IN ACCRA.

THE ABOVE SENTENCES ARE IN PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE BECAUSE THEY DENOTE
REPEATED ACTION. IN THIS TENSE, THE VERB MUST AGREE WITH THE SUBJECT
NOUN OR PRONOUN IN NUMBER. THE VERB NORMALLY TAKES ON “S” OR “ES”
TO SHOW THAT THE SUBJECT NOUN IS SINGULAR.
 PAST SIMPLE
• SIMPLE PAST IS USED TO SHOW AN EVENT WHICH OCCURRED IN THE PAST. IT IS
USED FOR NARRATIVES AND REPORTED SPEECH

• EXAMPLES:

• JOHN READ BOOKS AT SCHOOL.

• SHE SOLD IN THE MARKET.

• WE SANG AT HOME IN THE EVENING.

• RAIN FELL IN GHANA.

• MY BROTHERS WORKED AT OSU IN ACCRA.

• PAST SIMPLE COULD BE USED TO DENOTE ACTIONS OR EVENTS WHICH

OCCURRED IN THE PAST.
 PRESENT CONTINUOUS

• PRESENT CONTINUOUS IS USED TO SHOW AN ON-GOING EVENT.

• EXAMPLES:
• JOHN IS READING BOOKS AT SCHOOL.
• SHE IS SELLING IN THE MARKET.
• WE ARE SINGING AT HOME IN THE EVENING.
• RAIN IS FALLING IN GHANA.
• MY BROTHERS ARE WORKING AT OSU IN ACCRA.
 PRESENT CONTINUOUS…2

• NOTE: IN PRESENT CONTINUOUS, THERE ARE TWO VERBS, THUS

AN AUXILIARY FOLLOWS BY THE MAIN. THE AUXILIARY
AGREES WITH THE SUBJECT NOUN OR PRONOUN IN NUMBER.
• THE ONLY AUXILIARY USED IN THIS TENSE IS THE VERB” TO BE”
 FUTURE SIMPLE

• FUTURE SIMPLE IS USED TO DENOTE FUTURE PLAN. IT IS A

PLAN WHICH IS CERTAIN BUT WITH UNKNOWN TIME.
• THERE ARE THREE MAIN WORDS USED TO SHOW FUTURE-
WILL, SHALL AND MAY. THESE WORDS PRECEDE THE MAIN
VERB. THE MAIN VERB CEASES TO AGREE WITH THE SUBJECT
NOUN OR PRONOUN IN NUMBER.
• EXAMPLES:
 FUTURE SIMPLE
• FUTURE SIMPLE IS USED TO DENOTE FUTURE PLAN. IT IS A
PLAN WHICH IS CERTAIN BUT WITH UNKNOWN TIME.
• THERE ARE THREE MAIN WORDS USED TO SHOW FUTURE-
WILL, SHALL AND MAY. THESE WORDS PRECEDE THE MAIN
VERB. THE MAIN VERB CEASES TO AGREE WITH THE SUBJECT
NOUN OR PRONOUN IN NUMBER.
• EXAMPLES:
 FUTURE SIMPLE…2
• JOHN WILL READ BOOKS AT SCHOOL.
• SHE WILL SELL IN THE MARKET
• WE SHALL SING AT HOME IN THE EVENING.
• RAIN WILL FALL IN GHANA.
• MY BROTHERS WILL WORK AT OSU IN ACCRA.
 FUTURE CONTINUOUS
• FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE IS USED TO DENOTE AN
IMMEDIATE FUTURE PLAN. A NEAR FUTURE ACTION IS
EXPRESSED USING FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE.
• EXAMPLE:
• JOHN WILL BE READING BOOKS AT SCHOOL.
• SHE WILL BE SELLING IN THE MARKET.
• WE SHALL BE SINGING AT HOME IN THE EVENING.
• RAIN WILL BE FALLING IN GHANA.
 FUTURE CONTINUOUS--2
• MY BROTHERS WILL BE WORKING AT OSU IN ACCRA
ALL THE ABOVE SENTENCES ARE IN FUTURE CONTINUOUS
TENSE. SOMETIMES SOME USERS OF THE LANGUAGE TRY TO USE
THIS TENSE INCORRECTLY BY ADDING A WORD LIKE “ SOON”
TO THE END OF THE SENTENCE.
EXAMPLE: I WILL BE GOING TO TOWN SOON.
THE ABOVE EXPRESSION IS UNGRAMMATICAL. ONE COULD
SIMPLY SAY: I WILL GO TO TOWN SOON
 PRESENT PERFECT
• PRESENT PERFECT TENSE IS USED TO SHOW AN IMMEDIATE
ACTION IN THE PAST. WE USE THIS TENSE WHEN A RECENT PAST
ACTION IS LIKELY TO BE REPEATED IN A NEAR FUTURE.
• IN PRESENT PERFECT TENSE, WE USE TWO AUXILIARY VERBS
THUS, THE VERB “ TO BE” AND “ TO HAVE”.
• EITHER OF THESE VERBS PRECEDES THE MAIN VERB IN A GIVEN
SENTENCE.
 PRESENT PERFECT….2
• THE AUXILIARY VERBS AGREE WITH THE SUBJECT NOUN OR
PRONOUN THAT FOLLOW THEM IN NUMBER.
• EXAMPLE:
• JOHN HAS READ BOOKS AT SCHOOL.
• SHE HAS SOLD IN THE MARKET.
• WE HAVE SUNG AT HOME IN THE EVENING.
• RAIN HAS FALLEN IN GHANA.
• MY BROTHERS HAVE WORKED AT OSU IN ACCRA.
 PAST CONTINUOUS
• THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE IS USED TO DENOTE TWO
DIFFERENT ACTIONS WHICH OCCURRED IN THE PAST ALMOST
AT THE SAME TIME.
• THE TWO ACTIONS MUST OCCUR CONCURRENTLY, THUS ONE
ACTION FOLLOWING THE OTHER WITHIN THE SAME TIME.
• THE FIRST ACTION IS SAID IN PAST CONTINUOUS AND THE
SECOND ACTION IS SAID IN PAST SIMPLE.
 PAST CONTINUOUS…2
• EXAMPLES:
• JOHN WAS READING BOOKS AT SCHOOL WHEN I ARRIVED.
• SHE WAS SELLING IN THE MARKET WHEN I MET HER.
• WE WERE SINGING AT HOME IN THE EVENING WHEN THE RAIN
STARTED.
• RAIN WAS FALLING IN GHANA WHEN WE VISITED THE
COUNTRY.
 PAST PERFECT
• PAST PERFECT TENSE IS USED TO DENOTE HISTORIC PAST. IT
HAS SIMPLE SEMANTICS AS PAST SIMPLE.
• IT IS USED TO SHOW A COMPLETED ACTION IN THE PAST.
• IN MOST CASES, THIS TENSE IS USED TO SHOW TWO
COMPLETED ACTIONS IN THE PAST WHEREBY THE FIRST EVENT
IS PUT IN PAST PERFECT AND THE SECOND EVENT IS PUT IN
PAST SIMPLE.
 PAST PERFECT…2
• EXAMPLES:
• JOHN HAD READ BOOKS AT SCHOOL.
• SHE HAD SOLD IN THE MARKET.
• AFTER WE HAD SUNG AT HOME IN THE EVENING WE WENT TO
SLEEP.
• CROPS STARTED GROWING WELL AFTER RAIN HAD FALLEN
HEAVILY IN GHANA.
• MY BROTHERS HAD WORKED AT OSU IN ACCRA.
 CONDITIONAL
• CONDITIONAL TENSE IS USED TO SHOW A PROBABILITY OF AN
EVENT OR AN ACTION.
• IT IS USED FOR MAKING REQUEST.
• THERE ARE FOUR CONDITIONAL WORDS IN ENGLISH
LANGUAGE: WOULD, COULD, SHOULD, MIGHT.
• THE VERBS THAT FOLLOW THESE CONDITIONAL WORDS DO
NOT AGREE WITH THE SUBJECT NOUN OR PRONOUN IN
NUMBER.
 CONDITIONAL….2
• EXAMPLES:
• JOHN WOULD READ BOOKS AT SCHOOL.
• SHE COULD SELL IN THE MARKET.
• WE WOULD SING AT HOME IN THE EVENING.
• RAIN WOULD FALL IN GHANA.
• MY BROTHERS COULD WORK IN ACCRA.
 CONDITIONAL PERFECT
• THE CONDITIONAL PERFECT IS USED TO SHOW AN INTENDED
ACTION IN THE PAST WHICH WAS NOT FULFILLED.
• THE CONDITIONAL PERFECT IS NORMALLY COMPLETED WITH
THE PAST PERFECT.
• IN CONDITIONAL PERFECT, THE PRESENT PERFECT IS PRECEDED
BY THE CONDITIONAL WORD.
• THE AUXILIARY “ HAVE” IS ALWAYS USED .
 CONDITIONAL PERFECT….2
• EXAMPLES:
• JOHN WOULD HAVE READ BOOKS AT SCHOOL.
• SHE COULD HAVE SOLD IN THE MARKET.
• WE WOULD HAVE SUNG AT HOME IN THE EVENING.
• RAIN WOULD HAVE FALLEN IN ACCRA.
• MY BROTHERS SHOULD HAVE WORKED AT OSU IN ACCRA.
 FUTURE PERFECT
• FUTURE PERFECT TENSE IS FORMED WHEN PENDING ACTION’S
TIME IS PRE-DETERMINED BASED ON ANOTHER FUTURE
ACTION.
• THE PENDING ACTION IS SAID IN “FUTURE PERFECT” WHEREAS
THE OTHER FUTURE ACTION IS SAID IN PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE.
• BY THE TIME HE ARRIVES, I WILL HAVE FINISHED MY
ASSIGNMENT.
 FUTURE PERFECT….2
• IN THE FUTURE PERFECT, ANY OF THE THREE FUTURE WORDS
COULD BE USED FOLLOWED BY “ HAVE” AND THEN THE VERB
IN PAST PARTICIPLE.
• EXAMPLE:
• JOHN WILL HAVE READ THE BOOKS BY THE TIME HE
COMPLETES THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL.
• SHE WILL HAVE SOLD EVERYTHING BY THE TIME WE GET
THERE.
 RELATIVE PRONOUN
• RELATIVE PRONOUN IS A WORD OR GRAMMATICAL ITEM USED
IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TO AVOID REPETITION OF NOUNS OR
PRONOUNS IN COMPLEX SENTENCE FORMATION.
• THEY ARE SO CALLED BECAUSE THEY FUNCTION AS
PRONOUNS.
• THEY ARE RELATIVE BECAUSE THEY SHOW RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN THE NOUN PRESENT AND THE NOUN REPLACED.
 RELATIVE PRONOUN…2
• EXAMPLES:
• “WHO”….IT IS USED TO REPLACE A SUBJECT NOUN OR
PRONOUN IN A COMPLEX SENTENCE. THIS IS TO SAY THAT THE
NOUN PLAYING A SUBJECTIVE ROLE IN A GIVEN SENTENCE
COULD BE REPLACED WITH A RELATIVE PRONOUN.
• WHO, COULD ALSO BE USED AS AN INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.
IN THIS CASE, IT IS USED TO BEGIN AN INTERROGATIVE
SENTENCE.
 RELATIVE PRONOUN…..3
• EXAMPLE:
• 1A. JOHN TEACHES ENGLISH IN MY SCHOOL.
• 1B. JOHN LIVES AT OSU IN ACCRA.
• > JOHN WHO LIVES AT OSU TEACHES ENGLISH IN MY SCHOOL.
• IN THE ABOVE SENTENCES “A AND B”, JOHN, ACTS AS THE
SUBJECT THEREFORE, TO AVOID REPEATING THE SUBJECT
NOUN, WHO IS USED.
 RELATIVE PRONOUN….4
• “WHOM”….IT IS USED TO REPLACE A NOUN OR PRONOUN
WHICH PLAYS AN OBJECTIVE ROLE IN A GIVEN SENTENCE. A
NOUN OR PRONOUN IS SAID TO PLAY AN OBJECTIVE ROLE
WHEN SUCH NOUN OR PRONOUN IS PART OF THE PREDICATE OF
THAT SENTENCE. SIMPLY PUT, IF THE NOUN OR PRONOUN
UNDERGOES AN ACTION DESCRIBED BY THE VERB IN THAT
SENTENCE.
• WHOM COULD ALSO BE USED TO BEGIN AN INTERROGATIVE.
•
 CONTINUOUS…5
• EXAMPLE:
• 1A. WE MET MR. KUMAH IN TOWN.
• 1B. WE VISITED MR. KUMAH AT HOME.
• > WE MET MR. KUMAH WHOM WE VISITED AT HOME.
• IN THE ABOVE SENTENCE, WHOM, IS USED TO REPLACE ONE OF
THE OBJECT NOUNS.
• WHOM REPLACES A DIRECT OR AN INDIRECT OBJECT NOUN OR
PRONOUN.
 CONTINUOUS….6
• A DIRECT OBJECT NOUN COMES AFTER THE VERB. FOR
INSTANCE:
• EVANS INVITED JOHN. EVANS SAW JOHN.
• >EVANS INVITED JOHN WHOM HE SAW.
• IN THE ABOVE SENTENCE, JOHN IS USED AS A DIRECT OBJECT
NOUN BECAUSE IT FOLLOWS THE VERB WITHOUT ANY
INTERVENING PREPOSITION.
• AN INDIRECT NOUN USUALLY FOLLOWS A PREPOSITION. THE
VERB THAT TAKES A PREPOSITION BEFORE AN OBJECT IS
TERMED AN INTRANSITIVE VERB.
 CONTINUOUS….7
• FOR EXAMPLE:
• EMMANUEL SPOKE TO JANET. EMMANUEL MET JANET.
• > EMMANUEL MET JANET WHOM HE SPOKE TO.
• IN THE ABOVE SENTENCE, JANET FUNCTIONS AS AN INDIRECT
OBJECT NOUN BECAUSE IT COMES AFTER PREPOSITION. IN THIS
CASE, THE VERB IS TERMED AN INTRANSITIVE VERB.
 RELATIVE PRONOUN…8
• “WHOSE”..IT IS USED TO SHOW POSSESSION OR
BELONGINGNESS IN A GIVEN SENTENCE. IT IS USED TO
REPLACE A NOUN WHICH CARRIES A POSSESSIVE MARKER “ ‘S”.
FOR EXAMPLE, KOFI’S, JOHN’S ETC.
• IT IS NORMAL FOR ONE TO REPLACE A NOUN CARRYING A
POSSESSIVE MARKER WITH “WHOSE”.
• WHOSE, COULD ALSO BE USED TO BEGIN AN INTERROGATIVE
AND IN THIS CASE, IT IS NOT TERMED A RELATIVE PRONOUN.
 CONTINUOUS….9
• EXAMPLE:
• 1A. MR. MENSA TEACHES MATHEMATICS IN MY SCHOOL.
• 1B. MR. MENSA’S DAUGHTER TRAVELLED OVERSEAS.
• >MR. MENSA WHOSE DAUGHTER TRAVELLED OVERSEAS
TEACHES MATHEMATICS IN MY SCHOOL.
• IN THE ABOVE SENTENCE, WHOSE, IS USED TO REPLACE THE
NOUN CARRYING THE POSSESSIVE MARKER, THUS MENSA’S
 RELATIVE PRONOUN…10
• “WHICH”…IT IS USED TO REPLACE AN OBJECT NOUN OR
PRONOUN. APART FROM PERSONAL NOUNS OR PRONOUNS,
ANY OTHER NOUN OR PRONOUN COULD BE REPLACED
WITH( WHICH) AS A RELATIVE PRONOUN.
• (WHICH) IS USED WHEN THE OBJECT NOUN TO BE REPLACED IS
PRECEDED BY AN INDEFINITE ARTICLE LIKE (“A” OR “AN” ).THE
USE OF THESE ARTICLES SHOWS UNCERTAINTY OF THE NOUN
BEING REPLACED BY ( WHICH )
 CONTINUOUS…11
• EXAMPLE:
• 1A.BEN BOUGHT A WRIST-WATCH.
• 1B.BEN SAW A WRIST-WATCH.
• > BEN BOUGHT A WRIST-WATCH WHICH HE SAW.
• FROM THE ABOVE SENTENCE, WHICH IS USED AS A RELATIVE
PRONOUN TO REPLACE AN OBJECT NOUN PRECEDED BY AN
INDEFINITE ARTICLE,(A ).ALSO, THE OBJECT NOUN IS NOT
PERSONAL.
 CONTINUOUS….12
• “WHICH” COULD BE USED TO BEGIN AN INTERROGATIVE
DECLARATION. FOR EXAMPLE:
• WHICH WRIST-WATCH DID JOHN BUY?
• “WHICH” IN THIS CASE IS NOT USED AS A RELATIVE PRONOUN
BUT RATHER AS AN INTERROGATIVE WORD.
• “THAT”
• THAT LIKE WHICH IS USED WHEN THE OBJECT NOUN IS
PRECEDED BY A DEFINITE ARTICLE LIKE (THE).FOR EXAMPLE:
BEN BOUGHT THE WATCH THAT IS NICE.
• OTHER RELATIVE PRONOUNS ARE: ( WHERE, WHEN,
WHOEVER, WHOSOEVER ETC)
 T0PIC 3
• SUBJECT AND OBJECT PRONOUNS
A. SUBJECT AND OBJECT PRONOUNS ARE WORDS USED IN
PLACE OF NOUNS FUNCTIONING AS SUBJECT OR OBJECT
RESPECTIVELY IN A GIVEN SENTENCE.
 A SUBJECT NOUN OR PRONOUN IS A WORD WHICH INITIATES
A FUNCTION DESCRIBED BY THE VERB IN A GIVEN
SENTENCE.
 E.G. EVANS PLAYS FOOTBALL. IN THIS SENTENCE, “ EVANS
"IS FUNCTIONING AS THE SUBJECT NOUN.


 TOPIC 3 CONT…
< HE PLAYS FOOTBALL. IN THIS SENTENCE, “HE” IS FUNCTIONING
AS THE SUBJECT PRONOUN.
B. OBJECT NOUN OR PRONOUN IS A WORD WHICH UNDERGOES AN
ACTION DESCRIBED BY THE VERB IN A GIVEN SENTENCE. THE
OBJECT NOUN OR PRONOUN NORMALLY FOLLOWS THE VERB IN
A SENTENCE.
 THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF OBJECT NOUN OR PRO-
NOUN.E.G. A. DIRECT OBJECT NOUN OR PRONOUN.
B. AN INDIRECT OBJECT NOUN OR PRONOUN.
 TOPIC 3 CONT…
EXAMPLES:
 JOHN BOUGHT A NEW BAG.
 JANET WROTE A LETTER.
 KWESI INVITED MR. OSEI.
FROM THE THREE SENTENCES ABOVE, THE WORDS IN THE BOLD
ARE THE DIRECT OBJECT NOUNS BECAUSE THEY UNDERGO
DIRECT ACTION DESCRIBED BY THE VERB IN EACH SENTENCE.
 TOPIC 3 CONT…
• THE INDIRECT OBJECT NOUN OR PRONOUN IS A WORD WHICH
COMES AFTER A PREPOSITION IN A SENTENCE. THE TWO ITEMS MUST
BE FOUND IN THE PREDICATE OF THAT SENTENCE.
EXAMPLES:
>JOANA WROTE A LETTER TO PAUL.
 JAMES SPOKE TO MARY.
 VIVIAN GAVE A BOOK TO FRANK.
 TOPIC 3 CONT….
• FROM THE THREE SENTENCES, THE NOUNS IN BOLD ARE
INDIRECT OBJECT NOUNS BECAUSE THEY RECEIVE INDIRECT
ACTION FROM THE VERB IN THE PREDICATE OF THE SENTENCE.
THE INDIRECT OBJECT NOUN OR PRONOUN IS OFTEN PRECEDED
BY A PREPOSITION.
 TOPIC 3 CONT….
• SUBJECT PRONOUNS OBJECT PRONOUNS
I…………………………….ME
YOU………………………..YOU
HE………………………….HIM
SHE…………………………HER
IT…………………………….IT
WE…………………………..US
THEY…………………………THEM
 TOPIC:4. CONJUNCTIONS
• THERE ARE TWO KINDS OF CONJUNCTION, CO-ORDINATE AND
SUBORDINATE.
A. CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTION. THESE TYPES ARE USED IN
FORMING COMPOUND SENTENCES. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
IS A TYPE OF SENTENCE WHICH CONTAINS TWO OR MORE
IDEAS PUT TOGETHER BY THE USE OF THE CO-ORDINATE
CONJUNCTION.
 TOPIC 4 CONT…
• EXAMPLES:
1.JOHN WENT TO SCHOOL AND LEARNED HARD.
2.EVANS PLAYS FOOTBALL BUT DOES NOT PLAY HOCKEY.
3.AMA GOES TO MARKET, BUYS SOME FOOD ITEMS AND THEN
COMES BACK TO PREPARE MEALS.
IN THE ABOVE SENTENCES, THE WORDS IN BOLD ARE CALLED
CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTION. THESE WORDS ARE ABLE TO PUT
THE IDEAS WHICH ARE WRITTEN IN ITALICS TOGETHER IN ONE
SENTENCE.
 TOPIC 4 CONT…..
• SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTION.
• IT IS A CONJUNCTION USED TO INITIATE A SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE IN A COMPLEX SENTENCE. IT RENDERS A CLAUSE TO
BECOME A DEPENDENT. A DEPENDENT CLAUSE CANNOT STAND
ON ITS OWN AND BE MEANINGFUL. ITS MEANING IS
DEPENDENT ON THE MAIN CLAUSE. EXAMPLES
• 1.JOHN LEARNS HARD WHENEVER HE GOES TO SCHOOL.
• 2.EVANS FAILED THE EXAMINATION THOUGH HE LEARNED
HARD
 TOPIC 4. CONT……………..
• OTHER EXAMPLES OF SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS ARE:
WHEN, SINCE, YET, ALTHOUGH, WHILE, WHILST ETC.
 TOPIC 5
• TYPES OF SENTENCE:
• THERE ARE BASICALLY FOUR MAIN TYPES OF SENTENCE AND
THEY ARE:
1. SIMPLE SENTENCE.
2. COMPOUND SENTENCE.
3. COMPLEX SENTENCE.
4. COMPOUND COMPLEX.
 SIMPLE SENTENCE
• IT IS A TYPE OF SENTENCE WHICH GIVES ONLY ONE THOUGHT
OR IDEA. A THOUGHT IN A SENTENCE IS DESCRIBED BY A WORD
OR A GROUP OF WORDS CALLED A VERB.
• SIMPLE SENTENCE COULD BE IN ANY TENSE. FOR EXAMPLE,
ALL THE FIFTEEN TENSES WE SAW EARLIER COULD BE USED TO
FORM SIMPLE SENTENCES. THE FOLLOWING ARE THE
EXAMPLES OF THE ABOVE SENTENCE.
 CONT…..
1.EVANS PLAYS FOOTBALL AT SCHOOL.
2. EVANS IS PLAYING FOOTBALL AT SCHOOL.
3. EVANS HAS BEEN PLAYING FOOTBALL AT SCHOOL.
4. EVANS WILL BE PLAYING FOOTBALL AT SCHOOL.
ALL THE ABOVE ARE SIMPLE SENTENCES BUT IN DIFFERENT
TENSES. THIS MEANS THAT, A SIMPLE SENTENCE COULD BE IN
ANY TENSE.
 COMPOUND SENTENCE
• IT IS A TYPE OF SENTENCE WHICH CONTAINS TWO OR MORE
THOUGHTS. THESE THOUGHTS ARE PUT TOGETHER BY THE USE
OF CO- ORDINATE CONJUNCTION.
• IN A COMPOUND SENTENCE, THE SUBJECT NOUN OR PRONOUN
IS NOT REPEATED AFTER THE CONJUNCTION.
• SOME EXAMPLES:
• JOHN WENT TO ACCRA AND BOUGHT SOME BOOKS.
• PAUL TRAVELLED, MET SOME FRIENDS AND THEN NEGOTIATED
FOR HIS BUSINESS.
 COMPLEX SENTENCES
• A COMPLEX SENTENCE CONTAINS TWO OR MORE CLAUSES
WHICH ARE NOT OF THE SAME TYPES. IN A COMPLEX
SENTENCE, THERE ARE MAIN CLAUSE AND A SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE.
• THE MAIN CLAUSE WHICH IS ALSO KNOWN AS AN
INDEPENDENT OR PRINCIPAL CLAUSE CAN STAND ON ITS OWN
AND BE MEANINGFUL THUS, IT IS MEANINGFUL ON ITS OWN
TERMS. SOME EXAMPLES OF THIS CLAUSE ARE:
 COMPLEX SENTENCE CONT…..
• EVANS LEARNS HARD WHENEVER HE GOES TO SCHOOL.
• AMA DOES EVERY HOUSE CHORES SINCE SHE IS THE ONLY
DAUGHTER.
• JOHN FAILED THE EXAMINATION ALTHOUGH HE LEARNED
HARD.
• NOTE: IN A COMPLEX SENTENCE, THE SUBJECT NOUN OR
PRONOUN IS REPEATED AFTER THE CONJUNCTION. OTHER
EXAMPLES OF SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTION ARE: WHEN, YET,
BECAUSE, WHILE WHILST ETC.
 TOPIC 6 THE IF-CLAUSE
• THE “ IF” HAS A SPECIAL FUNCTION FROM ALL OTHER
SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTION. IT IS USED TO BEGIN A
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE OR A DEPENDENT CLAUSE. ACCORDING
TO ITS FUNCTION OR ROLE, IT HAS THREE DIFFERENT RULES
WHICH NEED TO BE FOLLOWED IN ORDER TO HAVE A
COMPLETE IDEA IN A COMPLEX SENTENCE FORMATION.
 THE IF-CLAUSE.
• “IF” IS A SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTION WHICH IS USED TO
BEGIN A SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. EVERY CLAUSE MUST BE IN A
PARTICULAR TENSE.
• IT IS BELIEVED THAT EVERY SUBORDINATE CLAUSE MUST
HAVE A CORRESPONDING MAIN CLAUSE WHICH MUST ALSO BE
IN A PARTICULAR TENSE.
• THE TWO CLAUSES ESTABLISHED IN A COMPLEX SENTENCE
MUST HAVE A RELATIVE TENSE . HERE ARE THE RULES BINDING
THE “IF-CLAUSE”.
 IF-CLAUSE CONT….
• 1ST. RULE: IF + PRESENT + FUTURE.
1. IF IT RAINS , MR. MENSAH WILL GO TO FARM.
2. IF I KNOW HIS HOUSE, I WILL GO THERE ALONE.
3. IF THE STUDENTS LEARN VERY HARD, THEY WILL PASS THE
EXAMINATION.
NOTE: IN THE ABOVE SENTENCES, THE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
INTRODUCED BY THE “IF” IS PUT IN PRESENT TENSE AND THE
MAIN CLAUSE IS PUT IN FUTURE TENSE.
 THE IF-CLAUSE CONT…
• 2ND.RULE: IF + PAST + CONDITIONAL.
1. IF WE KNEW HIM, WE WOULD INVITE HIM.
2. IF AMINA LEFT THE HOUSE EARLY, SHE WOULD MEET HER
BUSINESS PARTNER AT WORK.
3. IF I KNEW SOMETHING ABOUT IT, I WOULD INFORM YOU
EARLIER.
NOTE : IN THE ABOVE SENTENCES, THE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
INITIATED BY “IF” IS PUT IN “PAST SIMPLE TENSE” WHEREAS
THE MAIN CLAUSE IS IN “CONDITIONAL TENSE”.
 THE IF- CLAUSE CONT…
• 3RD.RULE: IF + PAST PERFECT + CONDITIONAL PERFECT.
1.IF JOHN HAD KNOWN ABOUT IT, HE WOULD HAVE TOLD US.
2. IF EVANS HAD LEARNT WELL, HE WOULD HAVE PASSED THE
TEST.
3. IF WE HAD COME EARLIER, WE WOULD HAVE MET OUR
LECTURER IN SCHOOL.
NOTE: IN THE ABOVE SENTENCES, THE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE IS
IN “PAST PERFECT” AND THE MAIN CLAUSE IS IN “
CONDITIONAL PERFECT”.