High Speed

Aerodynamics
Credit to:
Dr.Peter Barrington
of Kingston University, UK
Outline
• Compressible flow regimes
• High Speed Flight
• Isentropic flow relations
• Compressible flow in ducts
• Nozzle operation
• Normal Shock Wave
• Oblique Shock Wave
• Expansion
 Bernoulli Equation

1
P  V 2  P0
2
Only valid if changes in pressure are small relative to the
pressure

1
V 2
2  1
P
Speed of sound

• We can show that the speed of sound, a is

related to the compressibility of a gas and
given by:
P
a 
2
 RT

where γ and R are constants for a given gas
(1.4 and 287 J/kgK for air)
 Compressible flow
• We typically neglect changes in density if
V/a < 0.3

• This ratio is known as the Mach number

Flow Regimes
M < 0.3 Incompressible flow

0.3< M <0.7 Subsonic compressible flow

0.7<M<1.0 Transonic flow

1.0<M<5.0 Supersonic flow

5.0<M Hypersonic flow

Incompressible flow

• Changes in density insignificant

• Mach number has no influence
 Subsonic compressible flow
• Flow typically entirely subsonic

• Changes in density modify flow mildly

• Forces vary with Mach number

High Speed Flight
Aerofoil Behaviour in High Speed Flight

• For and airflow around an

aerofoil, the impending air in
front of the airflow is affected by
any manipulation on the airflow.

• It is as if the airflow on the

aerofoil can ‘warn’ the air in front
of the aerofoil before it hits the
aerofoil.
Aerofoil Behaviour in High Speed Flight

M=0.85
M=0.6
Aerofoil Behaviour in High Speed Flight

M=0.95
M=0.8
Aerofoil Behaviour in High Speed Flight

M=1.0
M=0.9
Aerofoil Behaviour in High Speed Flight

M=1.0
M=0.9

MCRIT

• At this point, the wing vigorously shakes due to the wing is entering
supersonic regime (transonic).

• The shake is mainly due to sudden drop of pressure before and after
the M=1 region. It is known as shockwave.
Shockwave formation

• At M>1 on wing, there will be pressure

difference and speed of sound difference at the
back of the wing where M<1.

• All the pressure wave accumulated and form a

shockwave.

• Shockwave can also appears anywhere on the

aircraft where pressure suddenly varies.

Green = pressure constant

Red = pressure high, speed low
Blue = pressure low, speed high
Shockwave formation

•Shockwave can also appears anywhere on the

aircraft where pressure suddenly varies.

•Whenever there is a shockwave, there will be

supersonic region in front of it.

Green = pressure constant

Red = pressure high, speed low
Blue = pressure low, speed high
Shockwave formation
Before After
Shockwave Shockwave
V=High V=Low
T= Low T= High
P= Low P= High

• Note that the T goes high after shockwave (energy wasted).

• It drags the aircraft and known as Wave Drag

• This energy needs to be overcome by the engine to maintain forward speed

of the aircraft.
Shockwave effect
Transonic Flight
Transonic Flight
• Transonic happens when the air surrounding the aircraft has a mix of
supersonic and subsonic regime.

Light green= supersonic

Dark green = subsonic
Red = shockwave
 Transonic Flow

• Flow mixed subsonic and supersonic

• Flow very sensitive to Mach number

Transonic flow
Supersonic Flight
• When all the air surrounding the aircraft is at supersonic, the aircraft
is said to be in supersonic flight

Light green= supersonic

Dark green = subsonic
Red = shockwave
Supersonic Flight
• In order to achieve such flight, modification to both fuselage and
aerofoil must be made.

• Fuselage must be streamlined.

• Aerofoil must be thinned and pointy.

 Supersonic flow
• Flow almost entirely supersonic except for
at leading edges and in boundary layer

• Disturbances cannot propagate upstream

• Flow sensitive to Mach number

Supersonic Flight
Hypersonic flow

• Kinetic heating effects dominate

• Mach number has limited effect
 Isentropic flow relations
v2
h   constant
2
h is the specific enthalpy of the gas
v is the speed

For air at moderate temperatures, h = CpT, where Cp is

the specific heat at constant pressure (1005 J/kgK)
 Isentropic flow relations
v2
T  T0
2C P

T0
 1
  1 2
M
T 2

This only requires no heat be added to the flow

 Isentropic flow relations

• A process that involves no heat addition

(adiabatic) and is reversible (no friction)
is know as isentropic.


• In this case: P2  T2   1
  
P1  T1 
 Isentropic flow relation
 
P0  T0   1    1 2   1
    1  M 
P T   2 

• This requires no heat be added to the flow and the

process is reversible.

• This is the compressible form of the Bernoulli

equation
 Example 1
An aircraft is flying at a speed of 250 m/s at an
altitude where the ambient pressure is 19.3
kPa and the ambient temperature is 216.7K.

Find the pressure and temperature at the nose

of the aircraft where the flow is brought to rest
 Airspeed measurement
 1
 
2   P0   
M      1
 1 P  
 
 1
  1

 
2  P   P0    2  Ps.l .   P0  P   
EAS       1 CAS      1  1
  1   s.l .   P    1   s.l .   Ps.l .  
  
 

At subsonic speeds a Pitot tube accurately measures Po, but

for supersonic flows a shockwave occurs upstream of the
tube and the stagnation pressure changes across the shock
Airspeed Measurement
 Compressible flow in ducts
• In steady conditions, the mass flow must be
constant along a duct.
m  VA
• At low speeds, density is constant

• At high speeds, density and speed both

change
 Compressible flow in ducts
• We can use the isentropic flow relations to
determine the change in density with Mach
number
• We can derive the following:
 1 
m  P0    1 2  2  1
 M 1  M 
A R T0  2 
Compressible flow in ducts
Compressible flow in a duct
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
f(M)

0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
M
 Compressible flow in ducts
• We can show that the maximum flow rate
per unit area occurs at Mach 1
• When M = 1 at the throat, we say that the
flow is choked
• This gives the maximum flowrate through
the nozzle for the given upstream
conditions
 Compressible flow in ducts
• Mass flow per unit area increases with M for
subsonic flow, but it decreases with M for
supersonic flow

• At supersonic speeds, an increase in area

causes speed to increase
 Compressible flow in ducts
• To accelerate from subsonic to supersonic
flow we require a converging and diverging
nozzle

M<1 M=1 M>1

 Compressible flow in ducts
• If the flow is supersonic downstream of the
throat, the conditions downstream can have
no influence upstream
 Compressible flow in ducts
• If the flow is supersonic in the diverging
section, the flow must be choked and the
Mach number is directly related to the area

 1
A 1  2    1M 2
 2  1
  
A* M   1 
Nozzle operation

Choked Flow

Unchoked Flow
Mass
Flow
Rate

Back Pressure
•

Example 2
Me=2.0
P0= 1 MPa
T0=20C
= 293K

Air is expanded from a reservoir through a converging-

diverging nozzle. The pressure in the reservoir is 1 MPa and
the Mach number at the nozzle exit is 2.0. Determine the
pressure and temperature and flow speed at the nozzle exit.
 Examples 3-5

3. Determine the ratio of throat area to exit area.

4. Determine the temperature and pressure at the throat
5. Determine the mass flow rate through the nozzle if the
throat diameter is 5cm.
 Example 6
The exhaust stream of a jet engine has a stagnation
pressure of 80 kPa and a stagnation temperature of 700 K.
It is expanded through a converging nozzle. Determine the
exit pressure at which the nozzle chokes.

T0 = 700 K

P0 = 80 kPa

e
 Normal shock wave

• Supersonic flows typically decelerate through

an abrupt shock wave

• A normal shock is perpendicular to the flow

direction
 Normal shock waves

V2 V1

M2 M1
P2 P1
T2 T1
2 1
 Normal Shock

 1M 12  2
M2 
2M 12  (  1)
P2

1
P1   1

2M 1  (  1)
2

 2 V1 (  1) M 12
 
 1 V2 (  1) M 12  2
2 2M 1  (  1)
 
2
T2
 2  (  1) M 1
T1 (  1) 2 M 12
 Normal shock wave

A shock is not a reversible process, so the

stagnation pressure changes
 1
Po2  (  1) M 12   1   1   1
   
Po1  2  (  1) M 12   2M 12  (  1) 

 1
Po 2  Po 2  Po1   (  1) M 12   1   1   1

 

 
    
P1 Po P
 1  1   2   2M 1
2
 (  1) 
Example 7
Air is flowing at Mach 2.2 in the test section of a wind
tunnel. A normal shock is standing in the test section.
If the pressure upstream of the shock is 20 kPa,
determine the pressure downstream.

P=20kPa

M=2.2

1 2

Shock
Example 8

An aircraft is flying at an altitude where the

ambient pressure is 19.3 kPa and the
ambient temperature is 216.7K.

Determine the aircraft speed if the pitot

tube measures a pressure of 120 kPa.
Oblique shocks
Oblique shocks

M2n=M2sin(-)
M1 

M1n = M1sin

M1 sin 2   1
2
tan   2 cot 
M1 (  cos 2 )  2
2
 Oblique shocks
• For any given upstream Mach number there is a
maximum deflection angle

• The maximum deflection angle increases with increasing

Mach number

• There are two shock angles associated with a given

deflection angle. We normally observe the smaller angle.
Oblique Shock

Note: M2 is usually but not always supersonic

Detached shock wave
Example 9
An aircraft is flying at Mach 2.0 at an altitude at an altitude
where the ambient pressure is 26.4 kPa and the ambient
temperature is 223.2 K.

The leading edge of the wing turns the flow through an

angle of 8. Determine the shock angle and the pressure
and flow speed downstream of the shock.

1 2
Expansion turn
Expansion turn
 Expansion turn
• An oblique shock is a compression turn
and is irreversible

• An expansion turn is gradual and can be

modelled as an expansion process
Prandtl-Meyer function
If a flow starts at Mach 1 and undergoes
and expansion turn, there is a relationship
between the turn angle and the Mach
number.

It is given by the Prandtl-Meyer function.

  1 1   1
( M ) 
 1
tan
 1
 M 2
 1  tan 1
M 2
1
 Prandtl-Meyer function
We use this to determine the downstream
Mach number with a given initial Mach
number and turn angle

 (M 2 )   (M 1 )  
 Expansion turn
Since the process is adiabatic and reversible,
we can use the isentropic flow relations to
determine pressure, temperature and flow
speed.
 Example 10
Air at standard sea level conditions (P=101.3 kPa)
is flowing at Mach 1.6 and undergoes an expansion
turn of 6. Determine the pressure downstream of
the turn.
1
2
Example 10 Solution
 Example 11
Determine the pressure on each face of the
aerofoil shown below.

B
M=1.8
10 10
P=20 kPa A C
 Example 11 Solution

Labelling the regions as shown below:

2
3

Region 1 includes the portion underneath the aerfoil

since there is no deflection of the flow
From the M chart, for M1=1.8,  = 10:
  44.1
M 1n  M 1 sin   1.8 sin 44.1  1.2517