Describing Data:

Frequency Tables, Frequency

Distributions, and Graphic Presentation

Chapter 1

By: Rei Escanilla Bontia,

LPT
McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2008
 GOALS

•Organize quantitative data into a frequency table.

•Present a frequency table as a “bar chart” (Excel
they are called a column chart) or a pie chart.
•Organize quantitative data into a frequency
distribution.
•Present a frequency distribution for quantitative data
using histograms, frequency polygons, and
cumulative frequency polygons.

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 Mutually Exclusive

 An individual, object, or measurement is

included in only one category
– It can’t be in two categories

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 Frequency Table

 Frequency Table: A grouping of quantitative data into

mutually exclusive classes (categories) showing the
number of observations in each class
S a le s d a ta fro m Auto De a le rs hip We would like a Frequecy Table that shows
P ric e P ric e ($ 0 0 0 ) Ag e o f Cus to me r Fo rD Ca r T y p e
how many of each Car Type we sold last
24,624.00 24.624 50 Do me s tic GM month from the Auto Dealership data
23,032.00 23.032 50 Do me s tic Fo rd (counting).
27,556.00 27.556 59 Do me s tic GM
20,384.00 20.384 32 Do me s tic GM Count of Car Type
20,953.00 20.953 29 Do me s tic Fo rd
Car Type Total
37,270.00 27.270 35 Fo re ig n Me rce d e s
21,006.00 21.006 57 Do me s tic GM
Ford 28
27,594.00 27.594 43 Do me s tic GM GM 22
29,636.00 29.636 51 Do me s tic GM Honda 13
26,357.00 26.357 31 Fo re ig n Ho nd a Mercedes 10
38,262.00 28.262 39 Fo re ig n Me rce d e s Toyota 7
38,910.00 38.910 25 Fo re ig n Ho nd a
Grand Total 80
23,947.00 23.947 43 Do me s tic Fo rd

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 Relative Class Frequencies

 Class frequencies can be converted to relative class

frequencies to show the fraction of the total number of
observations in each class.
 A relative frequency captures the relationship between
a class total and the total number of observations.
Car Type Fre que nc y Re lative Fre que nc y
GM 22 27.50%
Ford 28 35.00%
Me rce de s 10 12.50%
Honda 13 16.25%
Toyota 7 8.75%
80 100.00%

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 Textbook: Bar Charts 
Excel: Column Chart

 In Excel,
this is a
Column chart.
Column charts
are good for
Nominal Level
Data. Notice
that the
columns do not
touch.
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 Pie Charts

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 Frequency Distribution

A Frequency distribution is a
grouping of data into mutually
exclusive categories showing
the number of observations in
each class.

•The raw data are more easily interpreted if organized into a frequency
distribution
•The resulting frequency distribution helps a person to quickly see the
“shape” of the data
•Although the frequency distribution will result in the loss of some detail,
seeing patterns in the data can help a person to make better decisions

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 5 Steps To Organize Raw Data Into A
Frequency Distribution

 Step 1: Decide on Number of Classes

 Step 2: Determine The Class Interval
 Step 3: Set The Individual Class Limits
 Step 4: Tally The Data Into Classes
 Step 5: Count The Tallies in Each Class & Present
the Frequency Distribution

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 Step 1: Determining The Number Of Classes

 Goal is to use just enough classes so you General

can see the “shape” of the data. guidelines that
 You must use professional judgment. are not always
 Useful recipe to determine the number possible to
of classes: follow. Thus,
making
2k ≥ n
Frequency
n = total observations
Distributions is
k = number of classes
often refer to
as an “art”.
 Best to use 5 < k < 15

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 

Definitions

 Class Interval
– Distance between lower limit of class and lower limit of the
next class
– The class interval is obtained by subtracting the lower limit of
a class from the lower limit of the next class (also midpoint to
midpoint)
 Class Midpoint (Class Mark)
– The midpoint can be thought of as the “typical value” for the
class
– This is the average of the upper and lower class limits:
(Lower class limit + upper class limit)/2

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 Step 2: Determine The Class Interval Or Width

 Class interval should be  The classes all taken

the same for every together must cover at
interval least the distance from
the lowest value in the
– If they are not equal
raw data up to the highest
graphs may be value:
misleading, &
calculations may be Determine Class Interval
problematic
H-L
– In some cases, where i ≥
k
there is a potential for i = Class Interval
many empty classes, H = Highest Value
unequal class interval L = Lowest Value
may be necessary k = Number of Classes

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 EXAMPLE – Creating a Frequency
Distribution Table

Ms. Kathryn Ball of AutoUSA

wants to develop tables, charts,
and graphs to show the typical
selling price on various dealer
lots. The table on the right
reports only the price of the 80
vehicles sold last month at
Whitner Autoplex.

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 Constructing a Frequency Table -
Example

 Step 1: Decide on the number of classes.

A useful recipe to determine the number of classes (k) is
the “2 to the k rule.” such that 2k > n.
There were 80 vehicles sold. So n = 80. If we try k = 6, which
means we would use 6 classes, then 26 = 64, somewhat less
than 80. Hence, 6 is not enough classes. If we let k = 7, then 27
128, which is greater than 80. So the recommended number of
classes is 7.

 Step 2: Determine the class interval or width.

The formula is: i  (H-L)/k where i is the class interval, H is
the highest observed value, L is the lowest observed value,
and k is the number of classes.
($35,925 - $15,546)/7 = $2,911
Round up to some convenient number, such as a multiple of 10
or 100. Use a class width of $3,000

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 Step 3: Set The Individual Class Limits

 Classes must be mutually exclusive

 Avoid overlapping or unclear class limits: General
– Include lower limit guidelines that
– Exclude upper limit
 Example of class limits:
are not always
– $12,000 up to $15,000 and $15,000 up to possible to
$18,000 follow. Thus,
 $12,000 & $14,999 belong in the first class
 $15,000 belongs in the second class making
 Avoid open ended classes (problems with Frequency
graphing)
 The lower limit of the first class should be a Distributions
multiple of the class interval (not always is often refer
possible)
 Convenient multiples of ten are useful to as an “art”.
 You must compare the actual range to the
range implied by the number of classes &
class interval
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 Constructing a Frequency Table -
Example

 Step 3: Set the individual class limits

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 Constructing a Frequency Table

 Step 4: Tally the vehicle

selling prices into the
classes.

 Step 5: Count the number

of items in each class.

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 Observed Patterns:

 Range: about $15,000 to

about $36,000
 Concentration between
$18,000 & $27,000
 Largest concentration is in
$18,000 - $21,000 class
– Typical Value = (18+21)/2 = 19.5 K.
 Two sold for $33,000 or
more
 8 sold for less than $18,000

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 Relative Frequency Distribution

To convert a frequency distribution to a relative frequency

distribution, each of the class frequencies is divided by the
total number of observations.

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 Graphic Presentation of a
Frequency Distribution

The three commonly used graphic forms

are:
 Histograms
 Frequency polygons
 Cumulative frequency distributions

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 Histogram

Histogram for a frequency distribution based on quantitative data is

very similar to the column charts (book says: bar chart) showing the
distribution of qualitative data. The classes are marked on the
horizontal axis and the class frequencies on the vertical axis. The
class frequencies are represented by the heights of the bars. The
columns must touch in order to visually articulate that the class
interval spans from lower class limit to upper class limit.

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 Other Notes About Histogram

 Histograms constructed from Relative Frequency

Distributions look the same (have the same shape), but
instead, the vertical axis would show percentages
 Histograms must have the columns touching:
– The columns must touch in order to visually articulate that the class
interval spans from lower class limit to upper class limit (a
continuous variable)
– For nominal or ordinal level data, the columns are not drawn
adjacent to each other
 The category labels are usually words

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 Frequency Polygon

 A frequency polygon
also shows the shape
of a distribution and is
similar to a histogram.

 It consists of line
segments connecting
the points formed by
the intersections of the
class midpoints and the
class frequencies.

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 Activity

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 Cumulative Frequency Distribution

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 Feedbacking

 What is the first step of making a frequency table in

a data scores?
 How to calculate the midpoint?
 How you will get the cumulative frequency?

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 The End of Lecture

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