Describing Data:

Frequency Tables, Frequency

Distributions, and Graphic Presentation

Chapter 2

McGraw-Hill/Irwin ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2008

 GOALS

•Organize qualitative data into a frequency table.

•Present a frequency table as a bar chart or a pie
chart.
•Organize quantitative data into a frequency
distribution.
•Present a frequency distribution for quantitative data
using histograms, frequency polygons, and
cumulative frequency polygons.

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 How to summarize and present a data?

Two ways to summarize and present

statistical data are:
 Frequency distribution table
 Graphs and diagrams

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 Frequency Distribution

A Frequency
distribution is a
grouping of data
into mutually
exclusive categories
showing the number
of observations in
each class.

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 Frequency Distribution for Qualitative Data

Steps:
1. List the distinct values of the observations for the
qualitative variable in the data set in the first column
of a table.
2. For each observation, make a tally mark in the
second column of the table in the row for the
appropriate distinct value.
3. Count the tallies for each distinct value and record
the totals in the third column of the table.

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 Frequency Distribution for Qualitative Data

 Suppose you have the following data for which types of car students at
a college drive?
Ford, Chevy, Honda, Toyota, Toyota, Nissan, Kia, Nissan, Chevy, Toyota, Honda,
Chevy, Toyota, Nissan, Ford, Toyota, Nissan, Mercedes, Chevy, Ford, Nissan,
Toyota, Nissan, Ford, Chevy, Toyota, Nissan, Honda, Porsche, Hyundai, Chevy,
Chevy, Honda, Toyota, Chevy, Ford, Nissan, Toyota, Chevy, Honda, Chevy, Saturn,
Toyota, Chevy, Chevy, Nissan, Honda, Toyota, Toyota, Nissan.
 Frequency table for type of car data

Type of car Tally marks Frequency

Ford || 5
Chevy ||| 10
Honda || 6
Toyota |||| 12
Nissan ||| 10
Other | 5
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 Relative Class Frequencies

 Class frequencies can be converted to relative class

frequencies to show the fraction of the total number
of observations in each class.
 A relative frequency captures the relationship between
a class total and the total number of observations.

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 Determine the Relative Frequency of Each Category

Relative frequency distribution table for the type of car

Category Frequency Relative
frequency
Ford 5 0.1
Chevy 12 0.24
Honda 6
Toyota 12
Nissan 10
Other 5
Total 50
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 Constructing Ungrouped Frequency Distribution
for Quantitative data

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 Constructing Grouped Frequency Distribution
for Quantitative Data

Class midpoint: A point that divides a class

into two equal parts. This is the average
of the upper and lower class limits.
Class frequency: The number of
observations in each class.
Class interval: The class interval is
obtained by subtracting the lower limit of
a class from the lower limit of the next
class.

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 Frequency Distribution

Open-end classes: These are the classes in which

either the lower limit of the first class is not given or
the upper limit of the last class is not given or both
are not given. A distribution with such classes is
known as frequency distribution with open end
classes.

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 Data Classification Method

Inclusive method Exclusive method Inclusive class Exclusive class

When the upper limit

In the inclusive of the class is
method, the upper excluded from the
limit of a class interval class and is included
is included in the in the next class, it is
class itself. called exclusive meth
od.
It is suitable for It is suitable for
discrete variables. continuous variables. 
In this, class interval
In this, class interval
does not overlap
overlaps e.g.10-20,
e.g.10-19, 20-29, 30-
20-30, 30-40,etc.
39,etc.
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 Constructing Grouped Frequency Distribution
for Quantitative (Discrete) data

The following example relating to the daily number of car

accidents during 30 days of  a month.
144553435764434555535645446597
Solution:
 Minimum Value=1
 Maximum Value=9
 Range=9-1=8
 Number of classes= 5 [Since ]
  Width of each class=

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 Constructing Grouped Frequency Distribution
for Quantitative (Discrete) data

Frequency distribution of the daily number of car accidents

Number of accidents Tally marks Frequency
1-2
3-4
5-6
7-8
9-10

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 EXAMPLE – Creating a Frequency
Distribution Table for Continuous Data

Ms. Kathryn Ball of Auto USA

wants to develop tables, charts,
and graphs to show the typical
selling price on various dealer
lots. The table on the right
reports only the price of the 80
vehicles sold last month at
Whitner Autoplex.

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 Constructing a Frequency Table -
Example

 Step 1: Decide on the number of classes.

A useful formula to determine the number of classes (k) is the “2 to
the k rule.” such that 2k > n [n=no of values/sample size]
There were 80 vehicles sold. So n = 80. If we try k = 6, which means we
would use 6 classes, then 26 = 64, somewhat less than 80. Hence, 6 is not
enough classes. If we let k = 7, then 27 128, which is greater than 80. So
the recommended number of classes is 7.

 Step 2: Determine the class interval or width (i).

The formula is: i  (H-L)/k where i is the class interval, H is the
highest observed value, L is the lowest observed value, and k is the
number of classes.
($35,925 - $15,546)/7 = $2,911
Round up to some convenient number, such as a multiple of 10 or 100.
Use a class width of $3,000

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 Constructing a Frequency Table -
Example

 Step 3: Set the individual class limits

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 Constructing a Frequency Table

 Step 4: Tally the vehicle

selling prices into the
classes.

 Step 5: Count the number

of items in each class.

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 Relative Frequency Distribution

To convert a frequency distribution to a relative frequency

distribution, each of the class frequencies is divided by the
total number of observations.

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 Graphic Presentation of a
Frequency Distribution
The most common form of presenting
Categorical(qualitative) data are:
 Bar diagram
 Pie chart

The three commonly used graphic forms to

represent quantitative frequency distribution
are:
 Histograms
 Frequency polygons

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 Bar Charts

21 Figure: Simple Bar Chart

 Subdivided or Component Bar Chart
Used when the observations corresponding to the various categories have different
components and when comparison of the component parts is important.

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 Component Bar Chart

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 Multiple Bar Diagram

This diagrams are used to two or more interrelated data for

facilitating comparison.

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 Pie Charts

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 Histogram

Histogram for a frequency distribution based on

quantitative data is very similar to the bar chart showing
the distribution of qualitative data. The classes are marked
on the horizontal axis and the class frequencies on the
vertical axis. The class frequencies are represented by the
heights of the bars.

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 Frequency Polygon

 A frequency polygon
also shows the shape
of a distribution and is
similar to a histogram.

 It consists of line
segments connecting
the points formed by
the intersections of the
class midpoints and the
class frequencies.

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 Advantage of Frequency Polygon over
Histogram

 The frequency polygons of several distributions may

be plotted on the same graph, thereby making
certain comparisons possible, whereas histograms
cannot be usually employed in the same way. To
compare histograms we must have a separate graph
for each distribution. Because of this limitation for
purposes of making a graphic comparison of
frequency distributions, frequency polygons are
preferred.

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 Advantage of Frequency Polygon over
Histogram

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 Cumulative Frequency Distribution

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 Cumulative Frequency Distribution

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 End of Chapter 2

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