CHAPTER # 02

COMPUTER HARDWARE
Muhammad Owais
WHAT’S IN THE SUBJECT
MICROPROCESSOR / PROCESSOR / CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING
UNIT)
WHAT IS MICROPROCESSOR?
ALU (ARITHMETIC AND LOGICAL UNIT)
 This unit consists of two subsections namely,
 Arithmetic section
 Logical Section
 Arithmetic section
 The function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of the above operations.
 Logic Section
 The function of the logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,
matching, and merging of data.

 ALU is the “calculator” portion of the computer. An arithmetic logic unit(ALU) is

a major component of the central processing unit of the a computer system. It does
all processes related to arithmetic and logic operations that need to be done on
instruction words. In some microprocessor architectures, the ALU is divided into the
arithmetic unit (AU) and the logic unit (LU).
CONTROL UNIT
 This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not
carry out any actual data processing operations. Functions of this unit are − It
is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among
other units of a computer.

 The main function of a control unit is to fetch the data from the main
memory, determine the devices and the operations involved with it, and
produce control signals to execute the operations.
MEMORY UNIT (REGISTERS)
 A register is a set of flip-flops with each flip-flop adequate for saving one bit
of data. An n-bit register has a set of n flip-flops and is adequate for saving
any binary data of n bits.
 A CPU register is a small and temporary storage containing a set of data
holding places that are part of the computer processor. A register holds an
instruction, a storage address, or any kind of data.
4 – BIT MICROPROCESSORS
INTEL 4004
 Introduced in 1971.
 It was the first microprocessor
by Intel.
 It was a 4-bit µP.
 Its clock speed was
740KHz.
 It had 2,300 transistors.
 It could execute around
60,000 instructions per
second.
8 – BIT MICROPROCESSORS
INTEL 8008
16 – BIT MICROPROCESSORS
  INTRODUCED IN
1978.

INTEL 8086  It was first 16-bit µP.

 Its clock speed is 4.77 MHz, 8 MHz

and 10 MHz, depending on the
version.

 Its data bus is 16-bit and

address bus is 20-bit.

 It had 29,000 transistors.

 Could execute 2.5 million

instructions per second.

 It could access 1 MB of
memory.

 It had 22,000 instructions.

 It had Multiply and Divide
instructions.
INTEL 80186 & INTEL 80188

 Introduced in 1982.
 They were 16-bit µPs.
 Clock speed was 6 MHz.
32 – BIT MICROPROCESSORS
INTEL PENTIUM

 Introduced in 1993

 It was also 32-bit µP.

 It was originally named 80586.

 Its clock speed was 60 – 233 MHz.

 6 KB Cache memory.
INTEL PENTIUM PRO

 Introduced in 1995.
 It was also 32-bit µP.
INTEL PENTIUM – II
 Introduced in 1997.
 It was also 32-bit µP.
 Clock speed 266 MHz or greater.
INTEL PENTIUM – II XEON
 Introduced in 1998.
 It was also 32-bit µP.

 High – end server applications.

INTEL PENTIUM – III

 Introduced in 1999.
 It was also 32-bit µP.

 Clock speed 500 MHz.

 Rich Multi – media capabilities

INTEL PENTIUM – IV

 Introduced in 2000.
 It was also 32-bit µP.
 Clock speed 3.2 GHz.
INTEL DUAL CORE
 Introduced in 2006.
 It is 32-bit or 64-bit µP.
 It has two cores.
 Both the cores have there
own internal bus and L1
cache, but share the
external bus and L2 cache
64 – BIT MICROPROCESSORS
INTEL CORE 2 DUO

 Introduced in 2006.
 It is a 64-bit µP.
INTEL CORE I7

 Introduced in 2008.
 It is a 64-bit µP.
INTEL CORE I5

 Introduced in 2009.
 It is a 64-bit µP.
INTEL CORE I3

 Introduced in 2010.
 It is a 64-bit µP.
MICROPROCESSOR APPLICATIONS
4-BIT MICROPROCESSOR
 Calculators
 Financial, Scientific, Data Base
 Toys
 Robots, Remote-Controlled Cars, Hand Held Games
 Power Tool Controllers
 Speed Controls, Measurement Devices
 Simple Consumer Product Controllers
 Microwave, Oven, Telephone Dialers, TV Remote Controls
 Computer Peripherals
 Key Board Scanners, Simple Printers, Clocks, Watches.
8 – BIT MICROPROCESSORS
 Toys
 Video Games, Programmable Robots

 Computer Peripherals
 Video Displays, Modems, Printers, Plotters, Disk
Controllers, Communication Controllers, Switches, Routers
8 – BIT MICROPROCESSORS

 Industrial Controllers
 Robotics, Process Control, Machine Tool Control

 Instruments
 Logic Analyzers, Testers, Digital Oscilloscope,
Smart Voltmeters
 Complex Intelligent Consumer Product
Controllers
 Satellite Receiver Programming, Security System
 16 & 32 – BIT MICROPROCESSORS
 Personal Computers
 Household Appliances: Information Appliance
 Telephone
 TV
 Fridge
 PC

 Schools
 Small Businesses
 Faster Internet Access
 64 – BIT MICROPROCESSORS
 Usages
 Networking / Servers
 Art and Animation (Multi-Media)
 Designing Buildings etc. (Advanced Engg:)
 More Faster Internet Services

 Video Conferencing
 Net Shopping
MICROCONTROLLERS
WHAT IS A MICROCONTROLLER ?
A smaller computer
On-chip RAM, ROM, I/O ports...
Example ： Motorola’s 6811, Intel’s 8051,
Zilog’s Z8 and PIC 16X

CPU RAM ROM

A single chip
Serial
I/O Timer COM Microcontroller
Port Port
HOW IS IT DIFFERENT FROM A
MICROPROCESSOR ??
 General-purpose microprocessor

Data Bus
CPU
General-
Purpose Serial
RAM ROM I/O Timer
Micro- COM
Port
processor Port

Address Bus
Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller
Microprocessor
 CPU is stand-alone, RAM,
ROM, I/O, timer are
separate
 designer can decide on the
amount of ROM, RAM and
I/O ports.
 expansive
 versatility
 general-purpose
Microcontroller
• CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O and
timer are all on a single
chip
• fixed amount of on-chip
ROM, RAM, I/O ports
• Highly bit addressable for
applications in which cost,
power and space are critical
• single-purpose
 WHY DO WE NEED TO LEARN
MICROCONTROLLERS ?
 Its
not an exaggeration if I say that, today
there is no electronic gadget on the earth
which is designed without a Microcontroller.

 Examples include communication devices,

digital entertainment, portable devices etc…
 Personal information products: Cell phone, pager,
watch, pocket recorder, calculator
 Laptop components: mouse, keyboard, modem, fax
card, sound card, battery charger
 Home appliances: door lock, alarm clock, thermostat,
air conditioner, TV remote, VCR, small refrigerator,
exercise equipment, washer/dryer, microwave oven
 Industrial equipment: Temperature/pressure
controllers, Counters, timers, RPM Controllers
 Toys: video games, cars, dolls, etc.
So, A good designer should always
know what type of controller he/she
is using ,their architecture,
advantages , disadvantages , ways to
reduce production costs and product
reliability etc….
 OPEN VS. CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM

One way communication Feedback System

No Feedback: Accuracy is an issue Correct Errors
Simple: Cheaper & Easy to maintain Complex: High Price & Maintenance is an
issue
INTEL 8051 MICROCONTROLLER
 Developed by Intel in 1980
 Developed for embedded systems
 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF 8051
 4K bytes ROM
 128 bytes RAM

 Four 8-bit I/O ports

 Two 16-bit timers

 Serial interface

 64K external code memory space

 64K data memory space

FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM
APPLICATIONS OF MICROCONTROLLERS
SEVEN SEGMENT INTERFACING
TRAFFIC LIGHT CONTROLLER
Recent Wonders
RECENT WONDERS CONTD ..
RECENT WONDERS CONTD ..
INTERFACING
WHAT IS AN INTERFACE?
A boundary across which two independent
systems meet and act on or communicate with
each other.
WHAT IS AN INTERFACE?
In computer science and technology fields,
interfacing refers to the point of interaction or
communication between two devices or a user and a
device.
TYPES OF INTERFACE
 USER INTERFACE –
 The keyboard, mouse, menus of a computer system.
 The user interface allows the user to communicate with the
operating system.
 GUI (Graphical User Interface) and CLI (Command Line
Interface) also included in this type.

 SOFTWARE INTERFACE –
 Thelanguages and codes that the applications use to
communicate with each other and with the hardware.

 HARDWARE INTERFACE -
 Thewires, plugs and sockets that hardware devices use to
communicate with each other.
INTERFACING THE
MICROPROCESSOR
 Microprocessor operates as part of a system, The
interconnection or the linkage of the parts within this
system is called “Interfacing”

 Microprocessor in a system is interfaced with RAM, ROM,

Input and output devices.

 In current session we will discuss the Interfacing of

Microprocessor with
 ROM
 RAM
 I/O Devices
INTERFACING 8085 MPU WITH ROM
INTERFACING 8085 MPU WITH RAM
INTERFACING WITH SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY
OSCILLATOR
OSCILLATOR
 An oscillator is a mechanical or electronic device that works on the
principles of oscillation: a periodic fluctuation between two things based on
changes in energy. Computers, clocks, watches, radios, and metal detectors
are among the many devices that use oscillators.
COMPUTER MEMORY
COMPUTER MEMORY
 A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be
processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is
divided into large number of small parts called cells.
 Functions of the memory are:
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

 Memory is primarily of three types −

 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
COMPUTER MEMORY
CACHE MEMORY
 Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up
the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to
hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by the CPU.
The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by
the operating system, from where the CPU can access them.
 Advantages
 The advantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
 Disadvantages
 The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.
PRIMARY MEMORY (MAIN MEMORY)
 Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the
computer is currently working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when
power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device.
These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required
to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.
 Characteristics of Main Memory
 These are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
SECONDARY MEMORY
 This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is
slower than the main memory. These are used for storing data/information
permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are
accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are
first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For
example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
 Characteristics of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.
VOLATILE MEMORY AND NON-VOLATILE MEMORY
 Volatile memory is the type of memory in which data is lost as it is powered-
off.
 Non-volatile memory is the type of memory in which data remains stored
even if it is powered-off.
VIRTUAL MEMORY
 A computer can address more memory than the amount physically installed
on the system. This extra memory is actually called virtual memory and it is
a section of a hard disk that's set up to emulate the computer's RAM.
HDD (HARD DISK DRIVE)
 Hard disk drive is made up of a series of circular disks
called platters arranged one over the other almost ½ inches apart around
a spindle. Disks are made of non-magnetic material like aluminium alloy and
coated with 10-20 nm of magnetic material.
 Standard diameter of these disks is 14 inches and they rotate with speeds
varying from 4200 rpm (rotations per minute) for personal computers to
15000 rpm for servers. Data is stored by magnetizing or demagnetizing the
magnetic coating. A magnetic reader arm is used to read data from and write
data to the disks. A typical modern HDD has capacity in terabytes (TB).
 A sector is the smallest physical storage unit on the disk, and on most file
systems it is fixed at 512 bytes in size. A cluster can consist of one or more
consecutive sectors – commonly, a cluster will have four or eight sectors.
HDD (HARD DISK DRIVE)
SSD (SOLID STATE DRIVE)
 SSD is a non-volatile storage device, which stands for Solid State Drive. SSD stores the data on flash
memory chips and maintains the data in a permanent state, even when the power is off.
 Sometimes, this storage device is also called as a solid-state disk or solid-state device. As compared to
electromechanical drives, SSDs have lower latency and access quickly. These storage devices store the
data in the semiconductor cells.
 Unlike the HDDs (Hard Disk Drives), SSDs do not have any moving parts. That's why they are called
solid-state drives.