First Exams 2025

A2.1 Origin of Cells

Theme: Unity and Diversity

Level of Organisation: Cells

Additional HL
Content
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From
IB Guiding Questions the IB

What plausible hypothesis could account for the origin of

life?
What intermediate stages could there have been
between non-living matter and the first living cells?
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From
Additional HL Content - A2.1 Origin of Cells the IB

A2.1.1: Conditions on early Earth and the pre-biotic formation of carbon

compounds
A2.1.2: Cells as the smallest units of self-sustaining life
A2.1.3: Challenge of explaining the spontaneous origin of cells
A2.1.4: Evidence for the origin of carbon compounds
A2.1.5: Spontaneous formation of vesicles by coalescence of fatty acids
into spherical bilayers
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From
Additional HL Content - A2.1 Origin of Cells the IB

A2.1.6: RNA as a presumed first genetic material

A2.1.7: Evidence for a last universal common ancestor
A2.1.8: Approaches used to estimate dates of the first living cells and the
last universal common ancestor
A2.1.9: Evidence for the evolution of the last universal common ancestor
in the vicinity of hydrothermal vents
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HL Only Key Terms

Pre-Biotic Archaea Vesicle

Organic Compounds Eukarya Ribozyme

Spontaneous Generation Evolution Hydrothermal Vent

LUCA Amphipathic Thermophiles

Domains Hydrophilic
Eubacteria Hydrophobic
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From
A2.1.1: Conditions on early Earth and the pre- the IB

biotic formation of carbon compounds

Include the lack of free oxygen and therefore ozone, higher

concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane, resulting in higher
temperatures and ultraviolet light penetration. The conditions may have
caused a variety of carbon compounds to form spontaneously by
chemical processes that do not now occur.
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The Atmosphere of Prebiotic Earth

Oparin and Haldane suggested that the prebiotic Earth’s atmosphere was
significantly different than today.
Evidence suggests that Earth’s prebiotic atmosphere was primarily composed of
nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapor with smaller amounts of methane and
hydrogen.
There was no oxygen gas (O2) or ozone (O3) present in the atmosphere, as oxygen
gas was first released into the atmosphere by photosynthesis.
The lack of an ozone layer resulted in high levels of ultraviolet light entering the
atmosphere.
The high concentrations of carbon dioxide resulted in higher temperatures due to
the greenhouse effect.
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The Atmosphere of Prebiotic Earth

Oparin and Haldane proposed that the energy available from ultraviolet light and
higher temperatures (as well as lightning and volcanic activity) on the prebiotic
Earth allowed the spontaneous generation of organic compounds.
Over time the organic molecules became more complex, eventually leading to
self-replicating structures and to the first cells.

Notes:
Organic compounds are carbon-containing molecules excluding oxides and
carbonates.
Inorganic compounds are all the other compounds that are not organic.
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From
A2.1.2: Cells as the smallest units of self- the IB

sustaining life

Discuss the differences between something that is living and something

that is non-living.
Include reasons that viruses are considered to be non-living.
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Cell Theory

Cells are the

smallest units of
self-sustaining
life.

❓ State the
three parts of
the cell
theory.
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Cells are the Basic Unit of Life

All living organisms:
The cell theory states that:
1. Cells are the basic unit of life.
2. All organisms are composed of at
least one cell.
3. All cells come from pre-existing
cells.
❓ List characteristics which are
shared by all living organisms.
● Have at least once cell
● Are capable of carrying out
metabolism
● Maintain homeostasis
● Respond to stimuli
● Are capable of reproduction
● Grow and develop
● Contain genetic information
(in the form of DNA)
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Viruses are not Alive

Living organisms should possess all of the characteristics of

life.
❓ Explain why
Viruses do have genetic material (DNA or RNA), however
most they do not possess most of the characteristics of life.
scientists do
not consider ● Viruses do not have cells which carry out metabolism and
viruses to be homeostasis. Viruses cannot respond to stimuli, and they
alive. do not grow.
● Viruses are not capable of reproducing themselves. They
are replicated by host cells.
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From
A2.1.3: Challenge of explaining the the IB

spontaneous origin of cells

Cells are highly complex structures that can currently only be produced
by division of pre-existing cells.
Students should be aware that catalysis, self-replication of molecules,
self-assembly and the emergence of compartmentalization were
necessary requirements for the evolution of the first cells.
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From
A2.1.3: Challenge of explaining the the IB

spontaneous origin of cells

Nature Of Science: Students should appreciate that claims in science,

including hypotheses and theories, must be testable.
In some cases, scientists have to struggle with hypotheses that are
difficult to test. In this case the exact conditions on pre-biotic Earth
cannot be replicated and the first protocells did not fossilize.
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Origin of Cells
Cells are highly complex structures that can currently only be produced by
division of pre-existing cells.
The following were required for the development of the first cells:
● Catalysis
● Self-replication of molecules
● Self-assembly
● The emergence of compartmentalization

E. coli bacteria cells

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NOS - Scientific Claims Must Be Testable

Students should appreciate that claims in science, including hypotheses
and theories, must be testable.
However, it is impossible to know the exact conditions which existed on
prebiotic Earth.
Scientists have used evidence to identify the likely components of the
prebiotic atmosphere, but they will never conclusively know if they are
correct. This makes it unlikely that the exact conditions of prebiotic Earth
are replicated in experiments.
Additionally the first protocells did not leave any fossils, so we do not
have any evidence of their actual make-up.
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From
A2.1.4: Evidence for the origin of carbon the IB

compounds

Evaluate the Miller–Urey experiment.

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Miller Urey Experiment

Miller and Urey carried
out an experiment to
test Haldane and
Oparin’s hypothesis that
the macromolecules of
life could have
spontaneously generated
on a prebiotic Earth.
❓ Explain the
significance of Miller
and Urey’s
experiment.
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Miller Urey Experiment

Miller and Urey attempted to simulate the
conditions on a prebiotic Earth in a
laboratory setting.
The gases methane, ammonia, and hydrogen
along with water vapor represented the
prebiotic atmosphere.
Water was used to model the oceans.
A condenser allowed water vapor to return
to the liquid water.
Miller and Urey Experiment Apparatus
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Miller Urey Experiment

Energy was supplied through electrical sparks,
simulating lightning, and a heat source to evaporate
the water.
After one week the water became a brownish black.
Analysis of the water showed that many complex
organic molecules, including amino acids, had been
produced.
The experiment showed that at least some of the
organic molecules required for life could be
spontaneously generated under certain conditions.
Stanley Miller
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Evaluate Miller and Urey’s Experiment
Strengths
● Modelled prebiotic Earth and its
atmosphere.
● Demonstrated that molecules
such as amino acids can be
generated spontaneously under
certain conditions.
● The design of the experiment
allow it to be replicated by other
scientists.
Limitations
● There remains debate on the
actual atmosphere of prebiotic
Earth.
● The experiment did not produce
all of the organic molecules
required for life.
● The simulation could not account
for all conditions on the prebiotic
Earth.
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From
A2.1.5: Spontaneous formation of vesicles by the IB

coalescence of fatty acids into spherical bilayers

Formation of a membrane-bound compartment is needed to allow

internal chemistry to become different from that outside the
compartment.
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Cell Membranes
Cell metabolism requires the separation
of the cytoplasm from the external
environment. Cell membranes serve this
function in modern cells.
Cell membranes are formed of
phospholipid bilayers.
Phospholipids are amphipathic, with
hydrophilic phosphate heads, and Phospholipid
hydrophobic fatty acid tails.
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Cell Membranes
Fatty acids have formed
spontaneously in experiments
similar to Miller and Urey’s
experiment.
Fatty acids spontaneously
coalesce to form spherical
bilayers (vesicles) when mixed
with water.
It has been hypothesized that
the first genetic material was
trapped within a phospholipid
vesicle forming a protocell.
 From
A2.1.6: RNA as a presumed first genetic the IB

material

RNA can be replicated and has some catalytic activity so it may have
acted initially as both the genetic material and the enzymes of the
earliest cells. Ribozymes in the ribosome are still used to catalyse
peptide bond formation during protein synthesis.
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The First Genetic Material - RNA

Follow the linked animation.
Click on the arrows at the bottom
right of the screen to move
through the animation.
The animation begins with a review
of Miller and Urey’s experiment,
but then focuses on why RNA is
presumed to be the first genetic
material.
❓ Outline why RNA is presumed to be the first genetic material.
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The First Genetic Material - RNA

RNA is hypothesized to the first
genetic material because:
● RNA can store genetic
information
● RNA is capable of self-replication
● RNA can catalyze reactions
Ribozymes (RNA molecules) in the
ribosome catalyze the formation of
peptide bonds during protein
synthesis.
 From
A2.1.7: Evidence for a last universal common the IB

ancestor
Include the universal genetic code and shared genes across all
organisms. Include the likelihood of other forms of life having evolved
but becoming extinct due to competition from the last universal
common ancestor (LUCA) and descendants of LUCA.
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Last Universal Common Ancestor

The last universal common ancestor
(LUCA) is the most recent common
ancestor for all organisms on Earth.
There may have been other forms of life
at the same time as LUCA, but these
forms of life became extinct as LUCA and
its descendents outcompeted them.
Read the linked articles from the Phylogenetic tree including LUCA
New York Times and T
he Smithsonian Magazine on the last
universal common ancestor (LUCA).
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Evidence for LUCA

There are no fossil remains for the last universal
common ancestor (LUCA).
However the fact that all organisms share the
same genetic code, strongly suggests that all
organisms have evolved from LUCA.
All living things share a number of genes, which
are assumed to have been inherited from LUCA.
Cladistics allows scientists to estimate the age of
Darwin's Tree of Life
common ancestors by analyzing changes in the
genetic code.
 From
A2.1.8: Approaches used to estimate dates of the IB

the first living cells and the last universal

common ancestor
Students should develop an appreciation of the immense length of time
over which life has been evolving on Earth.
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The Earth is 4.6 Billion Years Old!

LUCA appeared
approximately 4
billion years ago.
Life has continued to
evolve for the last 4
billion years producing
the biodiversity
currently found on our
planet.
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Estimating the Age of the First Living Cells

The oldest fossils of cells (of cyanobacteria) are approximately 3.5 billion
years old.
The minerals and rocks around the earliest fossils have been dated using
radioactive dating of uranium, which decays at a steady rate.
Molecular clocks: Comparing the number of mutations in genes
between species allows scientists to estimate when the two species
diverged into separate species. Scientists have used this technique to
estimate that LUCA existed approximately 4 billion years ago.
 From
A2.1.9: Evidence for the evolution of the last the IB

universal common ancestor in the vicinity of

hydrothermal vents
Include fossilized evidence of life from ancient seafloor hydrothermal
vent precipitates and evidence of conserved sequences from genomic
analysis.
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LUCA Evolved Near Hydrothermal Vents

Evidence suggests that LUCA evolved
in the vicinity of hydrothermal vents.

Hydrothermal vents are rich in organic

compounds, such as methane, carbon
dioxide, and hydrogen.
Experiments similar to Miller and
Urey’s show that the building blocks of
life, such as proteins and nucleotides
can form from these chemicals. Hydrothermal Vent
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LUCA Evolved Near Hydrothermal Vents

Fossils of cyanobacteria have been
discovered from ancient seafloor
hydrothermal vent precipitates.
An analysis of genes common to all the
three domains of life has identified genes
that are highly conserved.
Some of these genes are involved in
thermophilic metabolism, suggesting that
LUCA may have evolved in a high
Hydrothermal Vent
temperature environment such as
hydrothermal vents.
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HL Only Key Terms

Pre-Biotic Archaea Vesicle

Organic Compounds Eukarya Ribozyme

Spontaneous Generation Evolution Hydrothermal Vent

LUCA Amphipathic Thermophiles

Domains Hydrophilic
Eubacteria Hydrophobic
HL and SL Content
From
A2.1 Origin of Cells- IB Linking the IB

Questions

For what reasons is heredity an essential feature of living things?

What is needed for structures to be able to evolve by natural selection?
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