Doppler Effect done

Geometrically
2 𝐻𝑧 4 𝐻𝑧
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
⃗
𝑒𝑡
We can also figure
this out algebraically.

~
⃗
𝑒𝑥 ⃗𝑥
𝑒
~ ~
𝑓 =𝜅 ( ⃗
𝑒 𝑡 ) =2 𝐻𝑧 𝑓 =𝜅 ( ⃗
𝑒 𝑡 )=4 𝐻𝑧
Relativity 106:
Tensors
Tensor = mathematical tools
let us write the laws of physics in a way that is
the same in all coordinate systems
a. Frequency-Wavenumber Covector and Doppler Effect
b. What are Tensors? What are Tensors for?
c. The Tensor Product
Vector = an arrow Covector = a stack
• Represents something • Represents something
with direction and size with direction and density
Vector = an arrow Covector = a stack
• Represents something • Represents something
with direction and size with direction and density
Give geometrical Give geometrical
representation of: representation of:
• Position • Waves
• Velocity (Doppler effect)
• Acceleration
• Momentum
• Force Density in time = frequency
(3D and 4D versions) Density in space = wavenumber
This Video:
1. Introduction to Covectors (Pure Math)

2. Application to Doppler Effect

• Galilean Doppler Effect
• Special Relativistic Doppler Effect (inertial frame)
• Special Relativistic Doppler Effect (non-inertial frame)
Covered more slowly in “Tensors for Beginners”
videos 4, 5, 6.
• links in description

If you already know covectors,

skip to this part of the video:
Covector = an oriented stack that eats a vector as
input and outputs a number.

2D covector 3D covector
⃗
𝑣

𝛼 (𝑣⃗
# stacks ) =¿
pierced
by vector
𝛼
 ⃗ ) =3
𝛼 (𝑣
⃗
𝑣

𝛼 (𝑣⃗
# stacks ) =¿
pierced
by vector
𝛼
 ⃗ ) =2
𝛼 (𝑣 ⃗ ) =1.5
⃗ 𝛼 (𝑣
𝑣
⃗
𝑣 (result is non-integer if
𝛼 𝛼 arrow makes it partway
between stacks)

⃗
𝑣 ⃗ ) =0
𝛼 (𝑣
𝑣⃗
(result is negative is
𝛼 arrow points in opposite
direction of stack)
𝛼 (result is zero if arrow
is parallel to stack)
 ⃗ ) =7
𝛼 (𝑣
⃗ ) =3
𝛼 (𝑢
𝛼 ⃗
𝑣 ⃗
𝑤 𝛼 (⃗
𝑤 )=4

⃗
𝑢 ⃗ ) =𝛼 ( 𝑢
𝛼 (𝑣 ⃗ ) +𝛼 (𝑤
⃗)
⃗ +𝑤
𝛼 (𝑢 ⃗ )=𝛼 (𝑢
⃗ ) +𝛼 ( ⃗
𝑤)
 𝛼 (𝑣⃗ ) =3
𝛼 2⃗
𝑣 𝛼 (2 ⃗
𝑣 )= 6
⃗
𝑣
𝛼 (2 ⃗
𝑣 )=2 𝛼 ( ⃗
𝑣)
𝛼 (𝑛⃗𝑣 ) =𝑛 𝛼 ( ⃗
𝑣)
Fundamental Laws of Covectors
⃗ +𝑤
𝛼 (𝑢 ⃗ )=𝛼 (𝑢
⃗ ) +𝛼 ( ⃗
𝑤) Add inputs or
add outputs

𝛼 (𝑛⃗
𝑣 ) =𝑛 𝛼 ( ⃗
𝑣) Scale inputs or
scale outputs

𝛼 (𝑎 ⃗
𝑢 +𝑏 ⃗ ⃗ ) +𝑏 𝛼 ( ⃗
𝑤 ) =𝑎𝛼 (𝑢 𝑤)
If we know how acts on a basis , then we
know how it acts on any vector .
 𝑥 𝑦
⃗ ) =𝑣 𝛼 ( ⃗
𝛼 (𝑣 𝑒𝑥 ) + 𝑣 𝛼 ( ⃗
𝑒𝑦)
We call and the
“components of in the basis”.
 ~
Vector components ⃗
𝑒𝑦
are contravariant.
⃗
𝑒𝑦 ⃗ ⃗
𝑣 𝑣
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒
⃗
𝑒𝑥
~ ~
⃗ =1 𝑒
𝑣 ⃗𝑥 +1 ⃗
𝑒𝑦 𝑣
⃗ =½ ⃗
𝑒 𝑥 +½ ⃗
𝑒𝑦
 ~
Covector components ⃗
𝑒𝑦
are covariant.
⃗
𝑒𝑦
𝛼 𝛼
~
⃗
𝑒𝑥 ⃗𝑥
𝑒
We build vectors using basis vectors:
𝑥 𝑦
⃗ =𝑣 ⃗
𝑣 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑣 ⃗
𝑒𝑦
Is there a basis for covectors too?
𝑥 𝑦
𝛼=𝛼 𝑥 𝜖 + 𝛼 𝑦 𝜖
“Dual basis”
 𝑥 𝑦
𝜖 𝜖
⃗
𝑒𝑦 ⃗
𝑒𝑦

⃗
𝑒𝑥 ⃗
𝑒𝑥
 𝑥 𝑦
2 𝜖 +1 𝜖 =𝛼 “add the densities”

𝜖
𝑥
𝜖
𝑦 𝛼
⃗
𝑒𝑦
2 +1 ¿ ⃗
𝑒𝑥
 𝑥 𝑦
2 𝜖 +1 𝜖 =𝛼 “add the densities”
𝛼
⃗
𝑒𝑦
⃗
𝑒𝑥
 ~
⃗
𝑒𝑦
𝑥
⃗
𝑒𝑦
𝜖
~
⃗
𝑒𝑥 ⃗𝑥
𝑒
 𝑦 ~
𝜖
⃗
𝑒𝑦
⃗
𝑒𝑦
⃗
𝑒𝑥
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒
Basis covectors are Contravariant!
Covectors are stacks
• Eat vectors inputs and output numbers
• Output of is # of stacks pierced by vector

Fundamental Covector Laws

• Add inputs or add outputs
• Scale inputs or scale outputs
Covectors can have a “dual basis”
• Dual basis definition

• Covector components
𝛼 𝑥 =𝛼 ( ⃗
𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝛼 𝑦 =𝛼 ( ⃗
𝑒𝑦)

and change in the same way (covariant)

and change in opposite ways (contravariant)
Vector Space Dual Space
𝑉 𝑉
∗

𝑣⃗ ∈𝑉 ∗
𝛼∈𝑉
Practical Application of Covectors:
(Relativistic) Doppler Effect
space
 wavelength

space

(linear) wavenumber (# peaks in a

unit distance)

angular wavenumber
 space

constant
 space

constant
There’s a wavenumber for each direction in 3D:
𝜅𝑥 𝜅𝑦 𝜅𝑧
2 2 2 2
( 𝜅 3 𝐷 ) =( 𝜅 𝑥 ) + ( 𝜅 𝑦 ) + ( 𝜅 𝑧 )

For this video, assume

 period

time

(linear) frequency (# peaks in

unit time)

angular frequency
time

space
time Wave is travelling left.

Wave speed

Units

space
time Wave is travelling left.

Wave speed

Units

Wave covector
(frequency-wavenumber covector)

space
time Doppler Effect:
• When we run towards
the source of a wave, its
frequency gets higher
• When we run away from
the source of a wave, its
frequency gets lower

Wave covector
(frequency-wavenumber covector)

space
time

space
time
frequency =
density in time
𝑓 = 𝜅 (⃗
𝑒𝑡 )

⃗ wavenumber =
𝑒𝑡
density in space
𝜅 𝑥= 𝜅 ( ⃗
𝑒𝑥 )
⃗
𝑒𝑥
space
⃗
𝑒𝑡
𝑓 =𝜅 ( ⃗
𝑒 𝑡 ) =2 𝐻𝑧

⃗
𝑒𝑥
 time

⃗
𝑒𝑡

⃗
𝑒𝑥
space
 time

Speed of car:

⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
⃗
𝑒𝑡
⃗
𝑒𝑥
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒 space
~
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~ ~
𝑓 =𝜅 ( ⃗
𝑒 𝑡 )=4 𝐻𝑧

~
⃗𝑥
𝑒
 time

⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
⃗
𝑒𝑡
⃗
𝑒𝑥
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒 space
 time Einstein’s frame

Car’s frame
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
⃗
𝑒𝑡
⃗
𝑒𝑥
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒 space
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
⃗
𝑒𝑡
We can also figure
this out algebraically.

~
⃗
𝑒𝑥 ⃗𝑥
𝑒
~ ~
𝑓 =𝜅 ( ⃗
𝑒 𝑡 ) =2 𝐻𝑧 𝑓 =𝜅 ( ⃗
𝑒 𝑡 )=4 𝐻𝑧
 Galilean Transform of Basis
~ (Relativity 103c)
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡
car
of
ed

⃗
𝑒𝑥
spe

~
⃗
𝑒 𝑥
Galilean Transform of Basis
Galilean Transform of Basis

Relative to Einstein:
speed of wave
Galilean Transform of Basis

Relative to Einstein:
frequency
speed of wave
speed of car
 Galilean Transform of Basis
Doppler Effect
(Galilean Relativity)
Lorentz Transform of Basis
Doppler Effect
(Special Relativity)
𝑐𝑡 Time is measured in
distance units like .

This puts time and space

on equal footing.
𝑥
They are both
measured in .
𝑐𝑡 Inertial frames:
Peaks in light waves always
travel with speed .

𝑥
≡ 𝜅𝑡
Time wavenumber
(units are , just like )
 𝑐𝑡

𝑥
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
⃗
𝑒 𝑥

⃗
𝑒𝑥
Lorentz Transform of Basis
 Lorentz Transform of Basis

𝜅 𝑡 =𝜅 𝑥
Lorentz Transform of Basis

Relative to Einstein:
Frequency
speed fraction
Lorentz Transform of Basis

𝑒𝑡 ~
⃗ ⃗
𝑒 𝑡
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒
⃗
𝑒𝑥
 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~ 𝛽 >0
⃗
𝑒𝑡
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒
⃗
𝑒𝑥
Observed Frequency blueshift
 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ˘
⃗
𝑒𝑡
𝛽 <0

˘
⃗
𝑒𝑥
⃗
𝑒𝑥
Observed Frequency redshift
𝑐𝑡 Doppler effect for
Accelerating Frame
• Constant proper
acceleration
• Worldline is a hyperbola
𝑥 (Relativity 105a,b,c)
 ~
𝑐𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 Doppler effect for
Accelerating Frame
~ ~ • Constant proper
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗𝑥
𝑒
acceleration
~ ~ • Worldline is a hyperbola
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗𝑥
𝑒
𝑥 (Relativity 105a,b,c)
is tangent to
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒 the worldline.
is orthogonal
From Relativity 105e:
Basis vectors are
partial derivatives.

Multivariable
Chain Rule
 𝜅 𝑡 =𝜅 𝑥

Hyperbolic
Worldline
~
𝑥= 𝐷
𝑐𝑡 ~
⃗
𝑒𝑡
If
then
~
~ ⃗𝑥
𝑒
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡

⃗
𝑒𝑥 ~ If
~
⃗
𝑒𝑡
⃗𝑥
𝑒
𝑥 then
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒

If
then
 𝑐𝑡 If
then
blueshift

𝑥
If
then

redshift
 Density in time direction
⃗
𝑒𝑡
Density in x-direction
𝜅 𝑥 =𝜅 ( ⃗
𝑒𝑥 )
⃗
𝑒𝑥
Wave Covector
(frequency-wavenumber covector)
𝑡 𝑥
𝜅 = 𝜅𝑡 𝜖 + 𝜅 𝑥 𝜖
𝑡 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝜅 =𝜅 𝑡 𝜖 + 𝜅 𝑥 𝜖 + 𝜅 𝑦 𝜖 + 𝜅 𝑧 𝜖
 ~
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
⃗
𝑒 𝑥

⃗
𝑒𝑥
Wave Covector is covariant
~ ~
[ 𝐴
[ 𝜅 𝑡 𝜅 𝑥 ] =[ 𝜅 𝑡 𝜅 𝑥 ] 𝐶 𝐵
𝐷

~~
[⃗ 𝑒 𝑥 ]= [ ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗ 𝑒𝑥 ]
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
[
𝐴
𝐶
𝐵
𝐷
Doppler Effect
Galilean Relativity
(Inertial Frame)
Special Relativity
(Inertial Frame)
Special Relativity
(Constant Proper Accel. )
()
⃗
𝑒𝑡
𝑓 =𝜅 ( ⃗
𝑒 𝑡 ) =2 𝐻𝑧

⃗
𝑒𝑥
~
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~ ~
𝑓 =𝜅 ( ⃗
𝑒 𝑡 )=4 𝐻𝑧

~
⃗𝑥
𝑒