Addis Ababa Science and Technology University

College of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering

Department of Electromechanical Engineering

Signals and Systems Analysis ( EEEg-2121)

Chapter One

Fundamental Concepts of Signals and Systems

Fundamental Concepts of Signals and Systems
Outline
 Introduction
 Continuous-time and Discrete-time Signals
 Basic Operations on Signals
 Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals
 Classification of Signals
 Systems and Classification of Systems

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Introduction

 A signal is any physical quantity that varies as a function of

some independent variable.
 The independent variable is usually time.
 We encounter many types of signals in various applications.
 Electrical signals: voltage, current, magnetic and electric
fields,…
 Mechanical signals: velocity, force, displacement,
pressure…
 Thermodynamic signals: temperature, enthalpy, entropy, …
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 Acoustic signals: sound, vibration,…
 Continuous-time and Discrete-time Signals

i. Continuous-time signals
 If a signal is defined for all instants of time, then it is known
as a continuous-time signal.
 A continuous-time signal is written as:
x(t ) ,  t  
 Most signals in nature are continuous-time signals.

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 Continuous-time and Discrete-time Signals…..

ii. Discrete-time signals

 If a signal is defined only at specific instants of time, then it is
known as a discrete-time signal.
 A discrete-time signal is written as:
x ( n) , n : is an integer
 Discrete-time signals are rare in nature and mostly obtained by
sampling continuous-time signals.
1 , n  3, 0, 2

Eg. x(n)  2, n  2,  1, 4

0 , otherwise
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 Basic Operations on Signals

i. Amplitude-scaling
 Consider a continuous-time signal denoted by x(t). The signal
y(t) obtained by scaling the amplitude by a factor A is given by:
y (t )  Ax(t )

where :

A is the amplitude - scaling factor

 The value of y(t) is obtained by multiplying the corresponding
value of x(t) by the scalar A.

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 Basic Operations on Signals……

 A physical example of a device that performs amplitude scaling

is an electronic amplifier.
 Similarly, consider a discrete-time signal denoted by x(n). The
signal y(n) obtained by scaling the amplitude by a factor A is
given by:
y (n)  Ax(n)

where :

A is the amplitude - scaling factor

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 Basic Operations on Signals……

ii. Time-scaling
 Consider a continuous-time signal denoted by x(t). The signal
y(t) obtained by scaling the time t by a factor a is defined as:

y (t )  x(at )
where :
a is the time - scaling factor

 If a  1 , the signal y(t) is a compressed version of x(t).

 If 0  a  1 , the signal y(t) is an expanded version of x(t).

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 Basic Operations on Signals……

 Similarly, consider a discrete-time signal denoted by x(n). The

discrete-time signal y(n) obtained by scaling the time n by a
factor a is defined as:

y (n)  x(an)
where :
a is the time scaling factor

 If a  1 , then some values of the time-scaled discrete-time

signal y(n) are lost.

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 Basic Operations on Signals……

Example:
Consider a triangular signal x(t) shown in the figure below.

Find and sketch the time-scaled version signals of x(t) given by:
1 
a. y (t )  x(2t ) b. y (t )  x t 
2 
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 Basic Operations on Signals……

Solution:
The resulting time-scaled version signals of x(t) are shown in
the figure below.

Fig. Time-scaling operation

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 Basic Operations on Signals……

Exercise:
The discrete-time signal x(n) is given by:

1 , n  2 ,  1 , 0


x ( n )   1 , n  1, 2


0 , otherwise

Sketch and label the time-scaled signals given by:

1 
a. y (n)  x(2n) b. y (n)  x n 
2 
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 Basic Operations on Signals……

iii. Time-reflection or reversal

 Consider a continuous-time signal denoted by x(t).
 The time-reflected version of x(t) is obtained by replacing the
time t with –t and is given by:

y (t )  x(t )

 Similarly, the time-reflected version of the discrete-time signal

x(n) is given by:

y ( n)  x (  n)
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 Basic Operations on Signals……

Example:
Consider a continuous-time signal x(t) shown in the figure
below.

Sketch and label the time-reflected version the above signal.

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 Basic Operations on Signals……

Solution:
The time- reflected version of the given continuous-time
signal x(t) is given below.

Fig. The time-reflected version of the original signal x(t)

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 Basic Operations on Signals……

Exercise:
The discrete-time signal x(n) is given by:

1 , n  2 ,  1


x ( n )  2 , n  0 , 1, 2


0 , otherwise

Sketch and label the time-reflected version the above signal

carefully.

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 Basic Operations on Signals……

iv. Time-shifting
 Consider a continuous-time signal denoted by x(t). The time-
shifted version of x(t) is defined as:

y (t )  x(t  t 0 )
where :
t 0 is the time shift

 If t 0  0 , then x(t) is shifted to the right.

 If t 0  0 , then x(t) is shifted to the left.

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 Basic Operations on Signals……

 Similarly, for a discrete-time signal x(n), the time-shifted

version is written as:

y ( n)  x ( n  n0 )
where :
n0 is the time shift

 If n0  0, then x(n) is shifted to the right.

 If n0  0, then x(n) is shifted to the left.

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 Basic Operations on Signals……

Example:
Consider a rectangular pulse x(t) shown in the figure below.

Sketch the time-shifted version of x(t) given by:

y (t )  x(t  2)
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 Basic Operations on Signals……

Solution:
The resulting rectangular pulse y(t) is obtained by time-shifting
x(t) by 2 units to the right. This time-shifted version signal is
shown in the figure below.

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 Basic Operations on Signals……

Exercise:
The discrete-time signal x(n) is given by:

1 , n  1, 2

x ( n )   1 , n  1 ,  2
0 , otherwise

Sketch and label the time-shifted signals given by:

a. y (n)  x(n  3)
b. y (n)  x(n  1)
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 Basic Operations on Signals……

v. Addition
 Let x1(t) and x2(t) be two continuous-time signals.

 The signal y(t) obtained by the addition of x1(t) and x2(t) is

defined as:
y (t )  x1 (t )  x 2 (t )
 Similarly, for discrete-time signals we have:
y (n)  x1 (n)  x 2 (n)
 A physical example of a device that adds signals is an audio
mixer which combines music and voice signals.

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 Basic Operations on Signals……

vi. Multiplication
 Let x1(t) and x2(t) denote a pair two continuous-time signals.

 The signal y(t) resulting from the multiplication of x1(t) by

x2(t) is defined as:
y (t )  x1 (t ) x 2 (t )

 Similarly, for discrete-time signals we have:

y (n)  x1 (n) x 2 (n)
 A physical example of a device that multiplies signals is a
radio amplitude modulator (AM).
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 Basic Operations on Signals……

vi. Combined signal operations

 Given a continuous-time signal x(t), we can define another
continuous-time signal y(t) by applying two or more signal
operations as:
y (t )  Ax(at  t 0 )
where :
A : amplitude - scaling factor
a : time - scaling factor
t 0 : the time shift
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 Basic Operations on Signals……

 Similarly, given a discrete-time signal x(n), we can define

another discrete-time signal y(n) by applying two or more
signal operations as:
y (n)  Ax(an  n0 )

where :
A : the amplitude - scaling factor
a : the time - scaling factor
n0 : the time shift

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 Basic Operations on Signals……

Exercise:
1. Consider the rectangular continuous-time pulse signal x(t)
shown in the figure below.

Find and sketch the time-shifted signals given by:

a. y (t )  x(2t  3) b. y (t )  3 x(4  t )
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 Basic Operations on Signals……

2. Consider the discrete-time signal x(n) defined by:

1 , 2 n 2
x ( n)  
0 , otherwise

Find and sketch the time-shifted signals given by:

a. y (n)  x(3n  2)

b. y (n)  2 x(1  n)

1
c. y (n)  x( n  4)
3
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 Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals

 There are several elementary signals that are important in the

study of different complex signals and systems. These include:
i. Unit impulse function
ii. Unit step function
iii. Unit ramp function
iv. Sinusoidal signals
v. Real exponential signals
vi. Complex exponential signals

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 Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

i. Unit impulse function

 The continuous-time unit impulse function, denoted by  (t ) , is
defined as:

 0 , t0
 (t )  
0 , t0

 The time-shifted continuous-time unit step function is defined

as:
1 , t  t0
 (t  t 0 )  
0 , t  t0
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 Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

 The continuous-time unit step and shifted unit step functions

are shown in the figure below.

Fig. Continuous-time unit impulse and shifted unit impulse functions

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 Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

 Similarly, the discrete-time unit impulse function, denoted

by  (n) , is defined as:

1 , n0

 ( n)  
0 , n0
 The time-shifted discrete-time unit impulse function is defined
as:

1 , n  n0

 ( n  n0 )  
0 , n  n0

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 Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

 The discrete-time unit impulse and shifted unit impulse

functions are shown in the figure below.

Fig. Discrete-time unit impulse and shifted unit impulse functions

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 Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

ii. Unit step function

 The continuous-time unit step function, denoted by u(t), is
defined as:

1 , t0
u (t )  
0 , t0

 Similarly, the shifted continuous-time unit step function is

defined as:
1 , t  t0
u (t  t 0 )  
0 , t  t0
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 Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

 The continuous-time unit step and shifted unit step functions

are shown in the figure below.

Fig. Continuous-time unit step and shifted unit step functions

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 Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

 Similarly, the discrete-time unit step function, denoted by

u(n), is defined as:

1 , n0
u ( n)  
0 , n0

 The time-shifted discrete-time unit step function is defined as:

1 , n  n0
u ( n  n0 )  
0 , n  n0

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 Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

 The discrete-time unit step and shifted unit step functions are
shown in the figure below.

Fig. Discrete-time unit step and shifted unit step functions

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Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

iii. Unit ramp function

 The continuous-time unit ramp function, denoted by r(t), is
defined as:

t , t0
r (t )  
0 , t0

 Similarly, the shifted continuous-time unit ramp function is

defined as:
t , t  t0
r (t  t 0 )  
0 , t  t0
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Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

 The continuous-time unit ramp and shifted unit ramp functions

are shown in the figure below.

Fig. Continuous-time unit ramp and shifted unit ramp functions

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Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

 The discrete-time unit ramp function, denoted by r(n), is

defined as:

n, n0
r ( n)  
0 , n0

 Similarly, the shifted discrete-time unit ramp function is

defined as:

n , n  n0
r ( n  n0 )  
0 , n  n0

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Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

 The discrete-time unit ramp and shifted unit ramp functions

are shown in the figure below.

Fig. Discrete-time unit ramp and shifted unit ramp functions

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Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

iv. Sinusoidal signals

 The continuous-time sinusoidal signal is given by:

x(t )  A cos(t   ) or
x(t )  A sin(t   )

 Similarly, the discrete-time sinusoidal signal is written as:

x(n)  A cos(n   ) or
x(n)  A sin( n   )

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Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……
v. Real exponential signals
 The continuous-time real exponential signal is written as:
x(t )  Ke at

If a  0  Decaying exponentia l signal

If a  0  Growing exponentia l signal

 Similarly, the discrete-time sinusoidal signal is given by:

x ( n)  K ( r ) n

If 0  r  1  Decaying exponentia l signal

If r  1  Growing exponentia l signal

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Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

vi. Complex exponential signals

 The continuous-time complex exponential signal is given by:

x(t )  e j0t

 Similarly, the discrete-time complex exponential signal is

written as:

x ( n )  e j 0 n

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Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

Relationship b/n sinusoidal & complex exponential signals:

 From Euler’s formula, the continuous-time complex
exponential signal can be written as:

e j0t  cos( 0 t )  j sin( 0 t ) ..........(i )

And ,

e  j0t  cos( 0 t )  j sin( 0 t ) ...........(ii )

 We can write continuous-time sinusoidal signals in terms of
continuous-time complex exponential signals as :
  and
cos( 0 t )  Re e j0t  
sin( 0 t )  Im e j0t
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Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

 Adding equations (i) and (ii), we get:

e j0t  e  j0t  2 cos( 0 t )

e j 0 t  e  j  0 t
 cos( 0 t ) 
2
 Similarly, subtracting equation (ii) from equation (i), we
obtain:
e j0t  e  j0t  2 j sin( 0 t )

e j 0 t  e  j 0 t
 sin( 0 t ) 
2j
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Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

 Similarly, for discrete-time complex exponential signals:

e j0 n  cos( 0 n)  j sin(  0 n) ..........(i )

And ,
 j 0 n
e  cos( 0 n)  j sin(  0 n) ..........(ii )
 We can write discrete-time sinusoidal signals in terms of
discrete-time complex exponential signals as :

cos( 0 n)  Re e j0 n   and 

sin(  0 n)  Im e j0 n 

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Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals……

 Adding equations (i) and (ii), we get:

e j0 n  e  j0 n  2 cos( 0 n)

e j 0 n  e  j  0 n
 cos( 0 n) 
2
 Similarly, subtracting equation (ii) from equation (i), we
obtain:
e j0 n  e  j0 n  2 j sin(  0 n)

e j 0 n  e  j 0 n
 sin(  0 n) 
2j
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Exercise
1. Consider a triangular continuous-time signal x(t) shown in the
figure below.

Sketch each of the following signals derived from x(t).

a. y (t )  x(3t ) d . y (t )  x(2t  4)

b. y (t )  x(3t  2) e. y (t )  x(4  2t )

c. y (t )  2 x(2t  1) f . y (t )  x(3t )  x(3t  2)

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Exercise……
2. Consider a continuous-time signal x(t) shown in the figure
below.

Sketch and label each of the

following signals derived
from x(t) carefully.

 t
a. y (t )  x(t  1) d . y (t )  x 4  
 2
b. y (t )  x(2  t ) e. y (t )  x(t )u (1  t )

c. y (t )  x(2t  1) d . y (t )  x(t )u (t  1)
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Exercise……
3. Consider a discrete-time signal x(n) shown in the figure below.

Sketch and label each of the

following signals derived
from x(n) carefully.

a. y (n)  x(n  2) d . y (n)  x n  2 

b. y (n)  x(2n) e. y (t )  x(n)u (n  3)

c. y (n)  x( n) f . y (t )  x(n  2)u (4  n)

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Exercise……
4. Express the following signals in terms of unit step functions.

a. Continuous-time signal b. Discrete-time signal

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Exercise……

5. Sketch and label each of the following signals carefully.

a. x(t )  u (t )  u (t  2)

b. x(t )  u (t  1)  2u (t )  u (t  1)

c. x(t )  u (t  3)  2u (t  1)  2u (t  1)  u (t  3)

d . x(n)  u (n  2)  u (n  1)  2u (n  4)

e. x(n)  u (n  3)  u (n  3)

f . x(n)   (n  1)  2 (n)   (n  1)

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