LECTURE 1

Introduction to
DNA and RNA
(Chapter 09)

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2
 DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
 DNA
• DNA is often called
the blueprint of life.
• In simple terms,
DNA contains the
instructions for
making proteins
within the cell.

4
DNA 2

DNA stands for deoxyribose nucleic acid

This chemical substance is present in the nucleus

of all cells in all living organisms

DNA controls all the chemical changes which

take place in cells

The kind of cell which is formed, (muscle, blood,

nerve etc) is controlled by DNA

The kind of organism which is produced (buttercup,

giraffe, herring, human etc) is controlled by DNA
 DNA by the Numbers
• Each cell has about 2 m
of DNA.
• The average human has
75 trillion cells.
• The average human has
enough DNA to go from
the earth to the sun
more than 400 times. The earth is 150 billion m
• DNA has a diameter of or 93 million miles from
only 0.000000002 m. the sun.

6
 Why do we study DNA?
DNA
We study DNA for
many reasons,
e.g.,
• its central
importance to all
life on Earth,
• medical benefits
such as cures for
diseases,
• better food crops.
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IDENTIFICATION OF DNA AS THE
GENETIC MATERIAL
• To fulfill its role, the genetic material must meet
several criteria
– 1. Information: It must contain the information necessary
to make an entire organism
– 2. Transmission: It must be passed from parent to
offspring
– 3. Replication: It must be copied
• In order to be passed from parent to offspring
– 4. Variation: It must be capable of changes
• To account for the known phenotypic variation in each species

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 Chromosomes and DNA

• Our genes are on

our chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are
made up of a
chemical called
DNA.

9
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Radial loops
(300 nm in diameter)

Metaphase
chromosome

30 nm fiber

Nucleosomes
(11 nm in diameter)

DNA
(2 nm in diameter)

Histone
protein
DNA wound
around histone
proteins

Each chromatid
(700 nm in diameter)
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 The Shape of the Molecule

• DNA is a very long

polymer.
• The basic shape is
like a twisted ladder
or zipper.
• This is called a
double helix.
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 Genetic material of cells…
• GENES – units of genetic material that
CODES FOR A SPECIFIC TRAIT

• Called NUCLEIC ACIDS

• DNA is made up of repeating molecules

called NUCLEOTIDES
 DNA Nucleotide
Phosphate
Group

O 5
O=P-O CH2
O
O
N
Nitrogenous base
C4 C
1
(A, G, C, or T)
Sugar
(deoxyribose)
C3 C2
 Nucleotides
 The nucleotide is the repeating structural unit of
DNA and RNA

 It has three components

 A phosphate group
 A pentose sugar
 A nitrogenous base

 Refer to Figure 9.7

14
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 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Bases
Phosphate group Sugars Purines Pyrimidines
(double ring) (single ring)
NH2 O O
5′
HOCH2 O OH CH3
N 6 4 H 4
4′ 1′ 7 5 1N 5 3N 5 3N
H H H 8
2
H H 9 4 6 1 2 6 1
2
3
N H N O H N O
3′ 2′ N
HO H
O– H H H
D-Deoxyribose (in DNA) Adenine (A) Thymine (T) (in DNA) Uracil (U) (in RNA)
O P O

O– O NH2
5′
N 6 H H
HOCH2 OH 4
O 1N
5
3N
7 5
4′ 1′ H 8 2
H H 9 4 6 1 2
H H N
3
NH2 H O
N N
3′ 2′
HO OH H H
D-Ribose (in RNA) Guanine (G) Cytosine (C)

Figure 9.7
9-24
 4
Ribose & deoxyribose

Ribose is a sugar, like glucose, but with only five

carbon atoms in its molecule

Deoxyribose is almost the same but lacks one

oxygen atom

Both molecules may be represented by the symbol

  These atoms are found within individual nucleotides
 However, they are removed when nucleotides join together to

make strands of DNA or RNA

A, G, C or T A, G, C or U

O Base O Base
O P O CH2 O P O CH2
5′ O 5′ O
1′
O– 4′
H H O– 4′
H H
1′
H H H H
Phosphate 3′ 2′
Phosphate 3′ 2′
OH H OH OH
Deoxyribose Ribose

(a) Repeating unit of (b) Repeating unit of

deoxyribonucleic ribonucleic acid (RNA)
acid (DNA)

Figure 9.8 The structure of nucleotides found in (a) DNA and (b)
RNA
 Base + sugar  nucleoside
 Example
 Adenine + ribose = Adenosine

 Adenine + deoxyribose = Deoxyadenosine

 Base + sugar + phosphate(s)  nucleotide

 Example
 Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)

 Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

 Refer to Figure 9.9

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 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine diphosphate
Adenosine monophosphate
Adenosine

Adenine NH2
Phosphoester bond
N
N
H
O O O N N
–O P O P O P O CH2
5′ O
O– O– O– 4′
H
1′ Base always
H
H H attached here
Phosphate groups 3 2′
HO OH
Phosphates are
attached here
Ribose

Figure 9.9 19
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 Nucleotides are covalently linked together by
phosphodiester bonds
 A phosphate connects the 5’ carbon of one nucleotide to
the 3’ carbon of another
 Therefore the strand has directionality
 5’ to 3’
 In a strand, all sugar molecules are oriented in the same
direction

 The phosphates and sugar molecules form the

backbone of the nucleic acid strand
 The bases project from the backbone

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 A HISTORY OF DNA

• Discovery of the DNA

double helix
A. Frederick Griffith –
Discovers that a factor in
diseased bacteria can
transform harmless bacteria
into deadly bacteria (1928)
Rosalind Franklin (1920-1958) and her x-ray
diffraction pattern of DNA.
 A HISTORY OF DNA
Watson and Crick - described the
DNA molecule from Franklin’s X-
ray.
(1953)
Watson & Crick proposed…
•DNA had specific pairing between the
nitrogen bases:
ADENINE – THYMINE
CYTOSINE - GUANINE

•DNA was made of 2 long stands of

nucleotides arranged in a specific way
called the “Complementary Rule”
Watson and Crick (1953)
II. The Watson-Crick Model of the
Structure of DNA
DNA consists of two chains of nucleotides
in a ladder-like structure which is twisted
(Double Helix)
 Watson and Crick Model:

A. The sides of the ladder are

made up of alternating
molecules of phosphate and
deoxyribose
B. The bases make up the rungs of
the ladder
C. The bases that make up the
rungs of the ladder are
attracted by a weak chemical
bonds called hydrogen bonds
 One Strand of DNA
• The backbone of phosphate

the molecule is
alternating
phosphates and deoxyribose
deoxyribose
sugar
• The teeth are
nitrogenous bases
bases.
Joined nucleotides 7

PO4

A molecule
PO4
of DNA is
formed by
PO4
millions of
nucleotides
PO4
joined
together in
sugar-phosphate + bases a long
backbone
 The Double Helix
• A DNA molecule consists of two strands of
nucleotide monomers running in opposite
directions and coiled into a double helix

• DNA nucleotide
– A five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose)
– Three phosphate groups
– One nitrogen-containing base (adenine,
thymine, guanine, or cytosine)
 DNA Double Helix
5
O 3

3
O
P 5 P
5
O
1 G C 3
2
4 4
2 1
3 5
O
P P
5
T A 3

O
5
P 3 P
2-stranded DNA 9
PO4
PO4

PO4
PO4

PO4 PO4

PO4
PO4

PO4
PO4

PO4
PO4

PO4
PO4

PO4
PO4
 Four nitrogenous bases

DNA has four different bases:

• Cytosine C
• Thymine T
• Adenine A
• Guanine G

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Two Kinds of Bases in DNA
N
• Pyrimidines are N C

single ring bases. O C C

N C

• Purines are N
N C
double ring C C
bases. N C N
NC
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 Nitrogenous Bases
• PURINES
1. Adenine (A)
2. Guanine (G)
A or G
• PYRIMIDINES
3. Thymine (T)
4. Cytosine (C) T or C
 Thymine and Cytosine are
pyrimidines

• Thymine and cytosine each have one

ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms.
N
N
O N C
C

O C C C O C C

N C
N C
thymine cytosine
37
 Adenine and Guanine are
purines
• Adenine and guanine each have two
rings of carbon and nitrogen atoms.

N O
N C N C

C C N C C
N N
N C N C
C
C Guanine N
Adenine N 38
 Base Pairing Rule

Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T)

Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine(C)

 Erwin Chargaff’s Rule
• Adenine must pair with Thymine
• Guanine must pair with Cytosine
• Their amounts in a given DNA molecule will be
about the same.
same

T A G C
 Bonding 1 10

e bases always pair up in the same way

denine forms a bond with Thymine

Adenine Thymine

and Cytosine bonds with Guanine

Cytosine Guanine
Bonding 2 11

PO4
PO4
adenine thymine

PO4
PO4
cytosine guanine

PO4
PO4

PO4
PO4
Pairing up 12
PO4
PO4

PO4
PO4

PO4 PO4

PO4
PO4

PO4
PO4

PO4
PO4

PO4
PO4

PO4
PO4
Chargraff’s Rule:
• Adenineand Thymine
always join together
A T
• Cytosineand Guanine
always join together
C G

44
 Clicker Question:
Given the amount of Adenine in a DNA sample is 37% and the
amount of Guanine is 13%, what will be the amount of
Thymine?

A. 37%
B. 13%
C. 74%
D. 50%
 Patterns of Base Pairing
• The order of bases (DNA sequence) varies
among species and among individuals
– Each species has characteristic DNA sequences

• DNA sequence
– The order of nucleotide bases in a strand of DNA
BASE-PAIRINGS
H-bonds

G C

T A
 Two Stranded DNA
• Remember, DNA
has two strands
that fit together
something like a
zipper.
• The teeth are the
nitrogenous
bases but why
do they stick
together?
50
 Hydrogen Bonds
• The bases attract each

N
other because of
hydrogen bonds.

C
N

N
• Hydrogen bonds are weak
but there are millions and

C
millions of them in a

N
O
single molecule of DNA.

N
C
• The bonds between N
cytosine and guanine are C N
shown here with dotted
lines C C O 51

C N
 Hydrogen Bonds, cont.
• When making N
O
C
hydrogen bonds,
cytosine always
N
O C C C
pairs up with
guanine N C
C
• Adenine always N
C
pairs up with N
thymine C
C C
• Adenine is bonded to N N
thymine here
52
 Genetic Diversity…
• Different
arrangements of
NUCLEOTIDES in a
nucleic acid (DNA)
provides the key to
DIVERSITY among
living organisms.
 The Code of Life…
• The “code” of the chromosome is the
SPECIFIC ORDER that bases occur.

A T C G T A T G C G G…
 DNA is wrapped tightly around
histones and coiled tightly to form
chromosomes
 DNA Replication
• DNA must be copied

• The DNA molecule produces 2

IDENTICAL new complementary
strands following the rules of
base pairing:
A-T, G-C

•Each strand of the

original DNA serves as
a template for the new
strand
 DNA Replication
• Semiconservative
Model:
1. Watson and Crick
showed: the two strands
of the parental molecule
separate, and each
functions as a template
for synthesis of a new
complementary strand. DNA Template
Parental DNA
. New DNA
 DNA Replication and Repair
• A cell replicates its DNA before it divides

• Each strand of the double helix serves as a

template for synthesis of a new,
complementary strand of DNA

• DNA replication results in two double-

stranded DNA molecules identical to the
parent
 DNA Replication and Repair
• During DNA replication, the double-helix
unwinds

• DNA polymerase uses each strand as a

template to assemble new, complementary
strands of DNA from free nucleotides

• DNA ligase seals any gaps to form a

continuous strand
 DNA Replication and Repair
• DNA replication
– Duplication of a cell’s DNA before cell division
• DNA polymerase
– DNA replication enzyme; assembles a new
strand of DNA based on sequence of a DNA
template
• DNA ligase
– Enzyme that seals breaks in double-stranded
DNA
DNA Replication
DNA Replication: The Double
Helix
1) The two strands of a DNA molecule are complementary:
their nucleotides match up according to base-pairing rules (G
to C, T to A).

2) As replication starts, the two strands of DNA unwind

at many sites along the length of the molecule.

3) Each parent strand serves as a template for assembly

of a new DNA strand from nucleotides, according to
base-pairing rules.

4) DNA ligase seals any gaps that remain between bases of

the “new” DNA, so a continuous strand forms. The base
sequence of each half-old, half-new DNA molecule is
identical to that of the parent.
• If the order of bases along one strand of
DNA is
AGGTTACTGCAC

what is the order of bases on the

complementary strand?
TCCAATGACGTG
Replication Quiz

1. Why is replication necessary? A---?

G---?
2. When does replication occur? C---?
T---?
3. Describe how replication works. A---?
G---?
4. Use the complementary rule to A---?
create the complementary G---?
strand: C---?
A---?
G---?
T---?
Replication Quiz
A---T
1. Why is replication necessary? G---C
So both new cells will have the correct C---G
DNA T---A
2. When does replication occur? A---T
During interphase (S phase). G---C
3. Describe how replication works. A---T
Enzymes unzip DNA and complementary G---C
nucleotides join each original strand.
C---G
4. Use the complementary rule to
create the complementary strand: A---T
G---C
T---A
(1961) Watson & Crick proposed…
• …DNA controlled cell function by
serving as a template for PROTEIN
structure.

• 3 Nucleotides = a triplet or CODON

(which code for a specific AMINO ACID)

• AMINO ACIDS are the building blocks

of proteins.
 DNA Transcription
• DNA can “unzip”
itself and RNA
nucleotides match
up to the DNA
strand.

• Both DNA & RNA

are formed from
NUCLEOTIDES and
are called NUCLEIC
acids.
 DNA Translation
• The cell uses
information from
“messenger” RNA
to produce proteins
 Transcription/Translation Quiz
1. Why is transcription necessary?
2. Describe transcription.
3. Why is translation necessary?
4. Describe translation.
5. What are the main differences
between DNA and RNA.
6. Using the chart on page 303, identify
the amino acids coded for by these
codons:
UGGCAGUGC
1. Why is transcription necessary?
Transcription makes messenger RNA (MRNA)
to carry the code for proteins out of the
nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
2. Describe transcription.
RNA polymerase binds to DNA, separates the
strands, then uses one strand as a template
to assemble MRNA.
3. Why is translation necessary?
Translation assures that the right amino acids
are joined together by peptides to form the
correct protein.
4. Describe translation.
The cell uses information from MRNA to
produce proteins.
5. What are the main differences between DNA
and RNA.
DNA has deoxyribose, RNA has ribose;
DNA has 2 strands, RNA has one strand;
DNA has thymine, RNA has uracil.
6. Using the chart on page 303, identify the
amino acids coded for by these codons:
UGGCAGUGC
tryptophan-glutamine-cysteine
 1.1 Impacts/Issues
Here Kitty, Kitty, Kitty, Kitty,
Kitty
• Making clones (exact genetic copies) of
adult animals is now a common practice in
research and animal husbandry
 Checking for Mistakes

•DNA repair mechanisms fix damaged DNA

– Proofreading by DNA polymerase corrects
most base-pairing errors

•DNA repair mechanisms

– Any of several processes by which enzymes
repair DNA damage
 Mutations

•Uncorrected errors in DNA replication may

become mutations

•Mutation
– A permanent change in DNA sequence
 Cloning Adult Animals

•Reproductive cloning technologies produce

an exact genetic copy of an individual
(clone)

•Reproductive cloning
– Technology that produces genetically identical
individuals
 Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer

•Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)

– Method of reproductive cloning in which
nuclear DNA from an adult somatic cell is
transferred into an unfertilized, enucleated
egg

•Therapeutic cloning
– Using SCNT to produce human embryos for
research
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer
 Clones
• Clone produced by somatic cell nuclear
transfer
 Digging into Data:
The Hershey Chase
Experiments
Fig. 6-12a, p. 113
 S remains
35

Virus proteins outside cells

labeled with 35S

DNA being injected

into bacterium

Virus DNA
labeled with 32P 32
P remains
inside cells
Labeled DNA
being injected
into bacterium

Fig. 6-12b-c, p. 113