CARBOHYDRATES

CONTENTS:

1. What are carbohydrates?

1.1 Classifications
a. Monosaccharides
b. Disaccharides
c. Oligosaccharides
d. Polysaccharides
2. Structures of Carbohydrates
3. Physiological Functions of Carbohydrates
4. Tests for Sugars
5. Carbohydrate Metabolism
Carbohydrates
• are found in a wide array of both healthy and unhealthy foods—bread, beans,
milk, popcorn, potatoes, cookies, spaghetti, soft drinks, corn, and cherry pie.
They also come in a variety of forms. The most common and abundant forms
are sugars, fibers, and starches
• provide the body with glucose, which is converted to energy used to support
bodily functions and physical activity.
• one of the four macromolecules
• source of energy
• precursors for organic compounds
• participate in cellular functions and as structural components
Sources of Carbohydrates
• The healthiest sources of carbohydrates—unprocessed or minimally
processed whole grains, vegetables, fruits and beans—promote good
health by delivering vitamins, minerals, fiber, and a host of important
phytonutrients.
• Unhealthier sources of carbohydrates include white bread, pastries,
sodas, and other highly processed or refined foods. These items contain
easily digested carbohydrates that may contribute to weight gain,
interfere with weight loss, and promote diabetes and heart disease.
 Monosaccharides
• A monosaccharide is the most basic
form of carbohydrates consisting of one
sugar unit
• Monosaccharides can by combined
through glycosidic bonds to form larger
carbohydrates
• Sweet taste and are soluble in water
• classified based on the presence of the
functional group and the number of
carbon atoms they contain (Aldose &
Ketose)
• EXAMPLE: Glucose, Fructose and
Galactose
 Disaccharides
• also called double sugar, any
substance that is composed of
two molecules of
simple sugars (monosaccharides)
linked to each other.
• Disaccharides are crystalline
water-soluble compounds.
• Disaccharides consist of two
monosaccharide units, linked by
glycosidic bonds in the α or β
orientation
• EXAMPLE: Sucrose, Lactose
and Maltose
Oligosaccharides
• any carbohydrate of from three to six units of simple sugars
(monosaccharides)
• subdivided based on the monosaccharide units present
• EXAMPLES: Raffinose and Stachyose
Polysaccharides
• two important function:
structural and storage of
energy
• differ from each other in the
identity of their recurring
monosaccharides, length of
their chains, type of bond
linkage and the degree of
branching
• Homopolysaccharides and
Heteropolysaccharides
• EXAMPLE: Starch,
Glycogen and Cellulose
Structure of Carbohydrates
• Open chain
structure - the ion
straight-chain form of
carbohydrates
• Hemi-acetal
structure - form a
ring structure
• Haworth structure -
presence of pyranose
ring structure
Physiological Function
• Molisch's Test- a sensitive chemical test for
all carbohydrates, and some compounds
containing carbohydrates in a combined
form, based on the dehydration of the
carbohydrate by sulfuric acid to produce an
aldehyde (either furfural or a derivative),
which then condenses with the phenolic
structure resulting in a red or purple-colored
compound
• Carbohydrates as reducing sugar
a. Fehling's Test- (deep blue colored) is
used to determine the presence of reducing sugars
and aldehydes
- the appearance of a
reddish-brown precipitate indicates a positive result
and the presence of reducing sugars

b. Barfoed's Test- a mixture of ethanoic

(acetic) acid and copper(II) acetate, is added to the
test solution and boiled. If any reducing sugars are
present a red precipitate of copper(I) oxide is
formed within three minutes
• Molisch's Test
• - a sensitive chemical test for all
carbohydrates, and some compounds
containing carbohydrates in a combined
form, based on the dehydration of the
carbohydrate by sulfuric acid to produce an
aldehyde (either furfural or a derivative),
which then condenses with the phenolic
structure resulting in a red or purple-colored
compound
• Iodine Test
- a test to distinguish starch from glucose
- in the presence of starch, iodine turns a
blue/black colour. For example, if iodine is
added to a peeled potato then it will turn
black.
 c. Seliwanoff's Test-
distinguishes between aldose and ketose
sugars. Ketoses are distinguished from
aldoses via their ketone/aldehyde
functionality. If it is a ketose sugar, the
solution turns cherry red, it is a aldose
sugar then a faint pink color may appear

d. Bial's test- is to determine

the presence of pentoses (5C sugars).
The components of this reagent are
resorcinol, HCl, and ferric chloride. In
this test, the pentose is dehydrated to
form furfural and the solution turns
bluish and a precipitate may form
 Carbohydrate Metabolism
• it is a fundamental chemical process that ensure a constant source of energy to
our body
• glycolysis, Krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation
1. Glycolysis
- a series of reactions that extract energy from glucose by splitting it into two
three-carbon molecules called pyruvates
- glycolysis converts one six-carbon molecule of glucose into two three-carbon
molecules of pyruvate.
2. Krebs cycle- provide high-
energy electrons in the form of
FADH2 and NADH to be
passed onward to the electron
transport chain.

3. oxidative phosphorylation-
the oxidation of glucose
through the reduction of NAD+
and FADH is coupled to the
phosphorylation of ADP to
produce ATP. Hence, the
process is known as oxidative
phosphorylation.
VIDEO PRESENTATION
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VzAjOPzUIP4
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mUo4c2f9rpI
References:
• Pearson, K., (2017). What Are The Key Function of Carbohydrates? Retrieved
from https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/carbohydrate-functions
• The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body. Retrieved from http://pressbooks-
dev.oer.hawaii.edu/humannutrition/chapter/the-functions-of-carbohydrates-in-
the-body/#navigation
• Carbohydrate Metabolism. Retrieved from
https://www.tocris.com/cell-biology/carbohydrate-metabolism
• EBook for Biochemistry
• Holesh JE, Aslam S, Martin A. Physiology, Carbohydrates. 2020 August 25. In:
StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2020 Jan–.
PMD: 29083823. Retrieved from
https:pubmed.ncbi.nih.gov/29083823/#:~:text=Carbohydrates%20play%20an
%20important%20role,metabolism%2C%20and%20help%20with
%20fermentation.
• Szakalay, J, (2017). What are Carbohydrates? Retrieved from
https://www.livescience.com/51976-carbohydrates.html
•