GEOLOGY 2B – Structural Geology – Lecture 2

Deformation and strain

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Contents 1. What is deformation?
2. Components of deformation
3. Homogeneous and heterogeneous strain
4. Finite vs. infinitesimal strain

5. Pure shear
6. Simple shear
7. Progressive deformation in pure shear
8. Progressive deformation in simple shear
9. Strain path and finite strain

10. Quantification of strain

11. Strain markers
12. Strain states
13. Representation of strain
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 1. What is deformation?
Is this rock deformed? NO! Final state (what you see)

Original state known

Belemnite fossils

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 1. What is deformation?
Is this rock deformed? YES!
Original state known

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Trilobites (Angelina sedgwicki) in a Cambrian slate from Wales. (From van der Pluijm and Marshak’s textbook)
 1. What is deformation?
Is the Jotun Nappe deformed? YES!

Jotun Nappe in the Scandinavian Caledonides. (From Fossen’s textbook)

The Jotun Nappe has been transported more than 300 km to SE. This is based on restoration and
the orientation of lineations.
The strain is concentrated at the base of the nappe. 5
 2. Components of deformation

The transformation from an initial to a final geometry by means of

• rigid body rotation
• rigid body translation,
• strain (distortion) and/or
• volume change (dilation/deflation or inflation)

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 How do we “see” deformation?
We need to know or estimate the initial state of the material
investigated.
If known, we can characterize:
• Displacement vectors
• And rarely, particle paths

Being able to recognize tectonic deformation depends on our knowledge of primary structures.

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 Rotation

B!
n B
” o
r i c
Understand differences between displacement vectors and particle paths!

i st
“ L
e o
v i d
e e
S
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Translation

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Strain – pure shear

Microphotograph of deformed oolitic limestone

(Alps). The approximate principal extension direction
(red) and principal shortening directions (yellow) are
indicated.
The ooids are not perfectly elliptical because the original ooids were not
perfectly spherical and because compositional differences let to
heterogeneous strain. The elongated ooids define a crude foliation
subperpendicular to the principal shortening direction.
Photo credit: John Ramsay.

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 Strain – simple shear

Continuous ductile shear zone in a granodiorite

Deformed
Ordovician trilobite

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http://www.geoscienze.unipd.it/egu-summerschool/photos/Fig06a.html
 Volume change
Generally 2 kinds:
• Expansion/contraction due to change of pressure or temperature
• Mineral/chemical reactions (new minerals with a different molar
volume)
Compaction et closure of voids (porosity) between grains Dissolution of the rocks during deformation –
Negative volume change

Rock fracturation enhancing formation of Change from coesite to quartz cause radial cracks in garnet
voids between fragments – Expansion – Expansion

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Photo Christian Nicollet
 2. Components of deformation

What are the different components of

=
deformation in the case above?

+
STRAIN
+
ROTATION TRANSLATION
We always need a reference frame when dealing with displacements and kinematics. 13
3. Homogeneous and heterogeneous strain

Initial state

Homogeneous strain (a) and (b)

• Properties of strain are identical throughout material, i.e.
each particle distorted in the same way
 In which
Originally caselines
straight is remain
strainstraight
homogeneous
 Originally parallel lines remain parallel
and
 Circles become heterogeneous?
ellipses

Heterogeneous strain (c)

• Type and amount of strain vary throughout the material –
one part is more deformed than another

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 Heterogeneous vs. homogeneous strain - Importance
of scale of observation
A deformation that is homogeneous on one scale may be considered heterogeneous or
discontinuous on a different scale.

Much more difficult mathematically to understand strain in discontinuous material than

continuous one.
How to overcome problems of heterogeneous deformation?

→ Concept of structural domains: regions of ± homogeneous deformation within ±

homogeneous rocks. 15
Heterogeneous vs. homogeneous strain - Importance
of scale of observation
B!
A deformation that is homogeneous on one scale may be considered
heterogeneous on a different scale
n B
” o
t ir c
L i s
o “
i de
e v
S e
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 Homogeneous strain
Circle becomes an ellipse in 2D (sphere and ellipsoid in 3D)
We define the principal axes of the strain ellipse:
Two material lines (X and Z) that remain perpendicular before and after strain.

Z
X With X > Z

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 Homogeneous strain in 3D
In 3D, X, Y and Z are the three principal axes of the strain ellipsoid

With X > Y > Z

Lines that are parallel with the principal strain axes are orthogonal,
and were also orthogonal in the undeformed state.

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 4. Finite vs. infinitesimal strain
Finite strain: Strain comparing initial and final strain configurations (= total strain).
Incremental strain: Strain state of one step in a progressive strain history.
Instantaneous strain: Incremental strain of duration tending to 0. This extremely small amount
of strain is also termed infinitesimal, acronym ISA.

At any stage of the deformation, 2 strain ellipsoids representing the strain of the rock.

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Contents 1. What is deformation?
2. Components of deformation
VIDEO 1
3. Homogeneous and heterogeneous strain
4. Finite vs. infinitesimal strain

5. Pure shear
6. Simple shear
7. Progressive deformation in pure shear VIDEO 2
8. Progressive deformation in simple shear
9. Strain path and finite strain

10. Quantification of strain

11. Strain markers
12. Strain states VIDEO 3
13. Representation of strain
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5. Pure shear

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 5. Pure shear
Pure shear = coaxial
Principal strain axes always in the same
directions (same orientation, different lengths).

Remember strain ellipsoid has 3 principal axis.

Zi instantaneous shortening axis – ISA3

Z1, 2,…, n shortening axis at t1, t2,.. tn

initial Zi Xi instantaneous stretching axis – ISA1

X1, 2,…, n stretching axis at t1, t2,.. tn

Z1 X≥Y≥Z
Z2
Z3

t0 t1 t2 t3 22
6. Simple shear
 6. Simple shear
Simple shear = rotational or non-coaxial
Orientations of principal strain axes are
different for different amount of strain.

Zi instantaneous shortening axis – ISA3

Z1, 2,…, n shortening axis at t1, t2,.. tn

Xi instantaneous stretching axis – ISA1

Zi X1, 2,…, n stretching axis at t1, t2,.. tn

Z1 Z2 Z3

t0 t1 t2 t3 = final state 24
Application of pure shear and simple shear

San Andreas Fault

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Terminology (on concepts) – deformation and strain
• Active marker • Principal strain axes
• Angular shear • Prolate
• Axially symmetric extension • Pure shear
• Axially symmetric shortening • Shear strain
• Brittle deformation • Shortening or contraction
• Coaxial deformation • Simple shear
• Deformation • Strain
• Displacement vector • Strain compatibility
• Ductile deformation • Strain ellipse
• Ellipsoid • Strain geometry
• Finite strain • Strain markers
• General shear or strain • Strain rate
• Heterogeneous deformation/strain • Stretching or extension
• Homogeneous deformation/strain
• Incremental strain
• Instantaneous stretching axes
• Internal rotation component of strain
• Non-coaxial deformation
• Oblate
• Permanent strain
• Plane strain 26