Chapter 5

Geological Structures

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 Stresses Description
Compression compress the rock body, eg convergent

Tension pulling the rock apart, eg divergent

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Shear forces acting parallel but in opposite directions, eg transform
 Deformation of rocks
Modes of rock deformation:

(1) Brittle - rocks which simply breaks.

(2) Ductile - rocks deform plastically

The factors control the modes of rock deformation:

(1) confining pressure

(2) temperature
(3) speed

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Factors of affecting deformation
Factors Description
Rock behave in a brittle when near the
surface where the confining pressure and
1) Confining temperature are relatively low.
pressure
2) temperature Rock behave in a ductile when buried
deep where the confining pressure and
temperature are relatively high.

Rock responds brittle if the stress applied

Speed is rapid.
Rock responds ductile if the stress
applied is slower. 6
Geological structures are called
based on shape of deformation
1. Fault
2. Joint
3. Fold

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Origin shape of sedimentary
rock: Flattening

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 Faults
• Faults are fractures had displacement.

• The adjacent rock masses slipped past one another in

response to tension, compression or shearing stress.

• Fault create zones of weaker and less stable ground.

• Sudden movements along faults may cause

earthquakes.

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Fault

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Fault

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Fault

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 Fault categories subjected on
types of movements
• (a) Normal fault

(b) Reverse fault

(c) Lateral fault

(d) Oblique slip fault

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 Normal fault
• Ground subjected to horizontal tensional force and one side of the
layer move downwards relative to the other.

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 Reverse fault
• Ground subjected to compression and one side of the layer
moved upwards relative to the other.

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 Lateral fault
• Ground subjected to horizontal shear force and the horizontal
movement along the fault plane.

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 Oblique slip fault
• Combination of lateral and downwards/upwards movements.

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 Joint
• Rock fractures with no movement

• Formed by tectonic stressing and thus resulted a

systematic fractured called joint set.

• Can found in all types of rocks.

(Term discontinuity in rock mass is adopted to any

mechanical break in rock mass: joint, fault, beddding,
foliation etc)

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Joint

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Joint

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 Folds
• Folds is a bend in layered rocks.

• Due to the collisions of tectonic plates.

• Upward folds are anticlines or downward synclines.

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Syncline and anticline showing the
axial plane, axis and fold limbs

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Fold

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Folds categories subjected on
shapes
(1) Monocline

(2) Anticline

(3) Syncline

(4) Overturned anticline and syncline

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 Monocline
• Folds in gently dipping bed are modified by steplike bends.

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 Anticline
• Folded rock layers upward
• The older rocks are in the center and the younger rocks are on the
flanks.

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 Syncline
• Folded rock layers downwards
• The younger beds in the center and the older rocks on the flanks
diagram of folds.

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Overturned anticline and syncline

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 Competent Strata
• Folding involves brittle deformation.
• Competent rocks are folded rock strata which behave
as brittle material
• Layers are folded by retaining their original thickness.

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 Incompetent Strata
• Folding involves ductile
deformation.

• Incompetent rocks are

folded rock strata which
ductile layers.

• Strongly distorted

• Rapid changes initial

thickness upon folding.

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 Unconformity
• The break between two sequences of rocks with
different dips.

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 Geology structures
measurement
• Use geological compass
• Strike and dip direction describe the
direction of rock layer
• Dip angle measure the degree of
inclination of a rock layer.
• Outcrop is an exposure of rock at the
surface.

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The orientation of a structural geology

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Application

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Slope stability
Slope stability
Slope stability
Slope stability
Tunnel stability
Tunnel stability
Hong kong
Geopark
Zhangye Danxia National Geological Park — Rainbow Mountains
Jiuhuashan UNESCO Global Geopark China