CE 334

RIGID PAVEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
 Concrete pavements, often called rigid
pavements, are made up of Portland
cement concrete and may or may not have
a base course between the pavement and
subgrade.

 As a general rule, the concrete, exclusive of

the base, is referred to as the pavement.
INTRODUCTION
 The concrete pavement, because of its
rigidity and high modulus of elasticity, tends
to distribute the applied load over a
relatively wide area of soil.

 The major portion of the structural capacity

is supplied by the slab itself.

 The major factor considered in the design of

concrete pavement is the strength of the
concrete itself.
INTRODUCTION
 Rigid pavements’ flexural strength permits
beamlike action across minor irregularities -
depressions beneath the pavements are not
reflected on running surface.
 Properly designed and constructed rigid
pavements have long service lives (up to 40
years) and require less maintenance than
flexible pavements. Despite high initial
construction cost, the overall life cycle cost
is much lower.
 The thickness of highway concrete
pavements normally ranges from 6 in. (150
mm) to 13 in. (325 mm).
Load Distribution
Subgrade
 The most important required property of
the subgrade is to provide a uniform
support for the slab. Due to high crushing
strength and rigidity, wheel loads are
distributed over a large area and stresses
on the subgrade are low.
 If the subgrade is well graded gravel or
sand (and can be compacted to high
density and give a good surface for
construction traffic) i.e. CBR≥15%, a
subbase will normally not be needed. Silt
and clay subgrades generally require a
subbase.
Subgrade
 If the surface is very irregular, e.g. in rock
cuttings, a granular subbase may be
used as a regulating layer.
Subbases

 The materials used in a subbase may

consist of granular materials, stabilised
soils or lean concrete. The surfaces of
subbase should be as regular as possible
for the following reasons:
– to reduce the interlock and friction between
the concrete slab underside and the top of the
subbase.
– to assist in the construction of a slab of
constant thickness.
Subbases…
 It is common practice to insert 125 m of
polythene sheeting as a separation
membrane between the surface of the
subbase and the bottom of the concrete
slab;
– it reduces friction.
– it prevents loose material on the subbase
surface from mixing with the bottom of
freshly-poured concrete.
– it prevents the loss of fine material from
concrete mix into a porous subbase.
 Subbases…
The following are particular instances
where subbase can be used:
(a) Improving drainage and minimising
the accumulation of water within pavement
Water which infiltrates through cracks and
joints in a concrete slab often results in the
loss of uniform subgrade support and in
pavement faulting due to redistribution of
subbase material. A granular subbase
designed to act as a drainage layer should
extend to the shoulder to allow the water
to escape.
Subbases…

(b)Preventing mud-pumping at the joints,

edges and cracks of pavements
Pumping occurs with most severity on soils with high clay
content i.e. % passing 75 m (No. 200) sieve ≥ 45%,
PI > 6.
Three factors must be present before pumping can occur
– free water
– a soil that will go into suspension
– frequent passage of heavy wheel loads.
The second factor can be prevented by
– chemically stabilising the subgrade to an adequate
depth
– providing 75-150 mm subbase layer of either
densely-graded or open-graded materials.
Subbases…
The following are American subbase
requirements to prevent pumping:
 Maximum aggregate size ≤ 1/3 thickness
of the subbase
 % passing 75 m sieve ≤ 15
 LL ≤ 25%, PI ≤ 6%
In some cases, cement-bound subbases
are used to minimise the likelihood of
pumping, particularly where subgrade soils
are poor and high traffic intensities with
heavy wheel loads are encountered.
Subbases…

(c) Minimising volume changes

Excessive differential shrink (in dry season)
and swell (in wet weather) of some soils can
cause non-uniform subgrade support
leading to distorted concrete pavements.
Partial design for combating a swelling
subgrade may require
– chemical stabilisation of the subgrade and/or
– the construction of a thick granular subbase .
Subbases…
(d)Forming a working surface for
construction traffic
The construction used for this purpose
should have a sufficient depth of either
• dense, well compacted granular material.
• chemically stabilised material.
which is capable of withstanding the
applied wheel stresses and protecting the
subgrade from detrimental actions of
weather.
Stresses in Rigid Pavements

Stresses are developed as a result of

several factors including:
 the action of traffic wheel loads
 the expansion and contraction of concrete
due to temperature changes
 yielding of subbase/ subgrade under
pavement
 volumetric changes
 LOAD INDUCED (BENDING)
STRESSES

 The theory of bending is fundamental to

analysis of stresses in rigid pavements.
A rigid pavement will fail under load
when the load or bending moment
develops flexural stresses that exceed
the modulus of rupture of the concrete.
 The most commonly used method of
analysis of stresses is the theory of a
beam supported on an elastic foundation.
 Load Induced Stresses…

beam on elastic
foundation

As the loaded beam in the fig. deflects, it causes

reactive pressure to develop on the subgrade which
is proportional to the deflection.
p  ky
Where
p = reactive pressure at any point
beneath the beam (psi or GPa)
y = deflection at the point (in. or mm)
k = modulus of subgrade reaction (pci or
Load Induced Stresses…

 The modulus of subgrade reaction, k, is

the stress (psi) that will cause a unit
deflection (an inch) of the underlying soil.
 Values of k are usually determined in the
field by means of a plate-bearing test.
The subgrade reaction value is calculated
for a standard unit load of 10 psi on a 30-
inch diameter plate.
 Load Induced Stresses…

The general relationship between moment

and radius of curvature for a beam is

1

where
R = radius M R
of curvature
M = moment in beam
E = modulus of elasticity
I =
EI
moment of inertia
Load Induced Stresses…

The basic expression that relates bending

moment to properties of a beam and x and y
coordinates is d 2y
M 
EI dx2
The form of the equation
Eh3 d 2 w
for a stab is Mx 
12 (1  2 )
st dx
The EI term in the 1 Eq. is called the
2

stiffness of the beam whereas the stiffness

term for a slab is D Eh 3
D
12 (1  
Load Induced Stresses…

Westergaard made use of the radius of

relative stiffness, which depends on the
stiffness of the slab and the modulus
of
subgrade reaction of the soil Eh3
l4
12(1  
l = radius of relative stiffness (in.) 2 )k
E = modulus of elasticity of the
concrete pavement (psi)
h = thickness of the pavement (in.)
 = Poisson’s ratio of the concrete
k pavement
= modulus of subgrade reaction (psi)
 Stresses Due to Wheel Loads –
Westergaard Theory
 The basic equations for determining
flexural stresses in concrete pavements due
to traffic wheel loads were first developed
by Westergaard (1926-1948).
 Westergaard considered three critical
locations of the wheel load i.e. Case A
(corner), B (interior), and C (edge).
Case A is not common anymore because
pavements have become much wider.
 The locations used for the relatively wide
pavements now being constructed are
shown as Cases I, II and III.
Critical locations of wheel loads on
concrete pavements
Westergaard Theory and
Developments
 The equations for determining the stresses
were developed considering different day
and night temperature conditions.
– During the day, the temperature is higher at the
slab surface than at the bottom, the slab edges
tend to curl downwards.
– During the night, the temperature at the bottom
of the slab is higher than at the surface, the slab
edges tend to curl upwards.
 The original Westergaard equations were
modified to reflect this phenomenon of
concrete pavements using results of full-
scale test as follows:
Westergaard Theory and
Developments…
Edge loading when the edges of the slab are
warped upward at night
 e  0.572P 4 log 10  l   log10 b
h2   b
 
Edge loading when the slab is unwarped or
when the edge is curled downward in day
time
 e  0.572P 4 log 10  l   0.359
2
h   b 

Interior loading 0.316P  10 l 
i  4 log
 b  1.069
h2  
where
e = maximum tensile stress (psi) at the bottom of slab,
directly under load P and applied at the edge and in a direction
parallel to the edge
i = maximum tensile stress (psi) at the bottom of the
slab directly under the load P applied at the interior of the
slab P = applied load (lb), including allowance for impact
h = thickness of slab (in.)
l = radius of relative stiffness (in.)
b = radius of equivalent distribution of pressure (in.)
= 1.6a 2  h 2  0.675h (for a < 1.724h)
=a (for a > 1.724h)
a = radius of contact area of load (in.); area assumed to be a
semicircle for edge loading.
Poisson ratio for concrete,  = 0.15
 Westergaard Theory and
Developments…
 Tensile stresses are greatest when the load
is applied at the longitudinal edge, midway
between transverse joints.
 Other critical loading locations are at the
transverse joint and corner. However,
aggregate interlock/dowel bars reduce the
stresses at these locations by transferring
loads across joints. Corner loading is
critical for deflection analysis.
 Stress under a load applied at the interior
is highly reduced because of the high
degree of load transfer within the slab.
TEMPERATURE INDUCED
STRESSES

There are two types of temperature induced

stresses:
 Temperature - Curling Stresses, and
 Temperature - Friction (Shrinkage)
Stresses
 Temperature - Curling Stresses
 The tendency of the slab edges to curl
downward during the day and upward
during the night as a result of temperature
gradient is resisted by the weight of the
slab itself resulting in stresses being
induced in the pavement.
 These curling stresses may be high
enough to cause cracking. They may
also reduce subgrade support resulting in
increased stresses due to traffic loads.
Temperature - Curling Stresses…

 Compressive stresses
at top; Tensile
stresses at bottom

 Tensile stresses
at top;
Compressive
stresses at bottom
Temperature - Curling Stresses…
 Studies show that curling stresses can
be higher than 200 psi (1.38 MPa) for
3m slabs. One of the purposes of
longitudinal joint is to limit the slab
width to 3.3  3.6 m.
 Another factor affecting temperature
differential is the latitude of location of
slab. The surface temperature of
the slab tends to be higher if the
angle of incidence of sun’s ray is high
e.g. near the equator.
Temperature - Curling Stresses…
 Westergaard developed equations to
calculate curling stresses due to differential
temperatures. Bradbury (1938)
developed coefficients for solving
Westergaard’s equations:

 e  CET T
2
ET T  C1  C2
i   
 2  1  
2
 Temperature - Curling Stresses…
e = maximum curling stress (psi) at the edge of the slab in
the direction of the slab length
i = maximum curling stress (psi) at the interior of the
slab in the direction of the slab length
E = modulus of elasticity of concrete (psi)
 = Poisson ratio for concrete
C = Coefficient for edge stress
C1 = Coefficient for interior stress for the desired
direction C2 =Coefficient for interior stress for the
perpendicular
direction
T= Temperature differential between top and bottom of the
slab,oF.
T = Coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete per oF.

The coefficients, C, are shown in the following figure.

Warping/ curling stress
coefficients
Temperature - Curling Stresses…

Although curling stresses may contribute to

cracking, they are normally not considered
in pavement (thickness) design, as joints
and steel reinforcement are normally used
to reduce their effects. Another reason is
that the margin of strength is usually
sufficient to offset these warping stresses.
 Temperature – Friction Stresses
 Temperature changes will result in slab expansion
(for increased temperature) and contraction (for
reduced temperature). As the pavement contracts,
the movements are resisted by the friction
between slab and underlying subbase/subgrade.
The resistance produces a direct tensile stress
which may cause concrete to crack.
 The magnitude of stress depends on length of slab,
the type of concrete pavement, the magnitude of
the temperature changes, coefficient of friction
between the pavement and subgrade.
 The magnitude of the restraint tensile stresses
developed is also heavily dependant upon the
temperature conditions at the time the slab is laid.
Temperature Steel

 The provision of suitable expansion/contraction

joints in the slab only reduces the magnitude of
these stresses since considerable resistance to
free movement will still be offered by the
subgrade/subbase.
 The principal function of steel reinforcement is to
control the opening of cracks in slab. It does
not completely prevent cracking but holds the
crack together thus controlling crack width.
 This direct tensile stress is greatest at the middle
of the slab so steel is usually designed to
withstand stresses at this location.
Temperature Steel…

 Inclusion of steel reinforcement to resist

flexural stresses in slab is not justified:
– for safety reasons
– economically, since modern construction
methods can secure additional load-carrying
capacity at a less cost by using additional
thickness of slab.
Stresses resulting from
contraction/friction

As the slab
contracts due
to temperature
change
Temperature – Friction Stresses…

For equilibrium, the frictional forces from

the centre to the free end of the slab
must equal the tension in the slab

L
 A  f A  2 hbg f
c c s s
c
Temperature – Friction Stresses…
h = thickness of slab
c = tensile stresses in concrete
Ac = area of concrete
fs = tensile stresses in steel
As = area of steel
L = length of slab
b = width of slab
f = friction coefficient
c = unit weight of concrete
g = acceleration due to gravity
 Temperature Steel…
• As the steel bars are spanning across the joint, the tensile
stress in the concrete is zero and all the stresses due to
friction resistance are taken by the steel bars.

 c Lhbf
Therefore f s As
g 2

 c Lh f
for unit width i.e. b = 1 As
g2
 s
Temperature Steel…

As= required area of steel per unit width

L = Length of slab
h = thickness of slab
f = average coefficient of friction
between the concrete slab and the
underlying layer (typically 1.5)
g = acceleration due to gravity
fs = allowable steel stress
Temperature – Friction Stresses…

Combining c and h in As = required area

above eq., the eq. to of steel per metre
calculate the min. width (mm 2)

amount of longitudinal M = mass per unit

steel may also be area of slab (t/m2)
expressed as L = length of slab (m)
1000MLfg
A  g = acceleration of
s free
2 s fall (9.81m/s2)
f fs = allowable
tensile stress in
steel (MPa)
Temperature Steel…

 For short slabs (4.5 – 6.0 m), the required

amount of steel is nil and plain concrete
perform adequately. Reinforcing steel
must be used for longer slabs to control
cracking.
 As the length of slab is increased to great
lengths e.g. 150 m or more, the amount
of steel becomes large and the
pavement becomes a continuously
reinforced concrete pavements.
 Temperature Steel…

A reinforced concrete slab is seldom wider than 4.6 m

and its length exceeds its width.
 Reinforcement is therefore normally required to
control transverse cracking as longitudinal cracking
rarely occurs. Reinforcement is placed in
longitudinal direction and transverse steel is
provided to give rigidity to mesh fabric or to
support and space deformed bars.
 Only if a slab is wider than 4.6 m, e.g. when
constructing a three lane carriageway in two equal
widths, is extra transverse steel required to control
longitudinal cracking.
MOISTURE INDUCED STRESSES

Differences in moisture
content between the top
and bottom of slab cause
the slab to warp as
moisture causes the slab
to expand, resulting in
warping stresses. Stresses
are caused by the weight
of the slab, resistance
from subgrade, and
restraint resistance at slab
edges.
Moisture Induced Stresses…

 For fairly wet climates, moisture content

remains constant throughout nearly the
full thickness of the slab.
 Moisture warping has a more significant
effect on drier climates and regions with
pronounced wet and dry seasons.
 It can generally be assumed that the
effect of moisture will oppose those of
temperature.
Load Transfer Mechanism

Types Benefits
 Aggregate Interlock  Reduced joint
(dummy) deflections
 Dowels  Reduced
 Keyways pumping
– Tied  Reduced slab
– Untied stress
 Subbase Support  Extended life
JOINTS IN CONCRETE PAVEMENTS

Types of Joints
 Contraction joints
 Expansion joints
 Construction joints
 Longitudinal joints
Contraction Joints
 Contraction joints are placed transversely at
regular intervals to relieve induced tensile
stresses (due to prevented contraction) and
control cracking.
 The maximum joint spacing necessary to control
cracking in plain concrete is 4.5 - 6.0 m. Spacings
for reinforced concrete are longer.
 The most commonly used type is the dummy
joint. Butt joints, which are also
construction joints, are used only on small
road schemes.
 If there is doubt about the ability of the
interlocking grains to transfer the load, a dowel
bar may be installed.
Typical (dummy) Contraction
Joint

formed or sawed groove

d/2

d
Load transfer e.g.
dowel (if specified)

Crack inducer
Expansion Joints

 Primarily designed to provide space for expansion

of concrete slabs when the temperature rises
(above which the concrete was laid) i.e. relief
compressive stresses.
 They are provided transversely, at regular
intervals and mostly where pavements meet
structures such as bridge abutments, or at
intersections.
 They are usually 20 to 25 mm wide.
 The joint space is filled with compressible filler
material e.g. cork, rubber, or bituminous material.
Expansion Joints…

 The load transfer mechanism is usually a

smooth dowel bar lubricated on one side.
An expansion cap is usually installed to
provide space for dowel during expansion.
 Recommended maximum spacing of
expansion joints for plain slabs is 60 m
for 200 mm or greater thickness, and 40
m for slabs of lesser thickness.
 Expansion joints are susceptible to
pumping and their use should be
minimised.
Typical (dowelled) Expansion
Joint
20 mm

50 mm
Sealing
d/2 25 mm
compound

Expansion
d fixed Smooth, cap
filler lubricated (paint,
oil)
Construction Joints

 Construction joints are those transverse

joints, other than deliberately designed
joints, placed to provide suitable
transition between concrete laid at
different times.
 Load transfer is provided by a key, dowel
or tie bar.
 Good construction planning ensures that
end-of-day joints are either contraction or
expansion joints.
Typical (keyed) construction joint

~20 mm

~13 mm

d
d/3

~13 mm

0.1d
Typical (butt) construction joint

d/2

mm

d fixed
Smooth, lubricated
(dowel bar)
Longitudinal Joints

 For relief of curling and warping stresses

 Different types are used depending on
whether construction is full width or lane-
at-a-time.
Full-width construction
Lane-at-a-time Construction
Joint Opening
 Spacing of joints in plain concrete
pavements depends more on the shrinkage
characteristics of the concrete rather than
on the stress.
 Joint opening decreases load transfer
efficiency and increases potential for
moisture infiltration.

L  CL(t T  )
Joint Opening…

L = Joint opening, mm or in.

t = Coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete (5
to 6  10-6/F or 9 to 11  10-6/C)
 = Drying shrinkage coefficient of concrete, 0.5 to
2.5  10-4
L = Joint spacing, mm or in.
T = Temp. drop (temp. at construction-lowest
mean min. monthly temp., F or C.
C = Adjustment factor due to slab-subbase
friction,
0.65 for stabilised base, 0.80 for granular
subbase, 1.0 for subgrade soils.
TYPES OF CONCRETE PAVEMENTS

 Plain Jointed Concrete Pavement (JCP)

 Simply Jointed Reinforced Concrete
Pavement (JRCP)
 Continuously Reinforced Concrete
Pavement (CRCP)
 Prestressed Concrete Pavement
(PCP)
Plain Concrete Pavements
 A plain concrete pavement has no steel or dowel
for load transfer. However, steel tie bars are
often used to provide a hinge effect at
longitudinal joints and to prevent their opening.
 Plain concrete pavements are used mainly on
low volume highways or when cement stabilised
subbases are used.
 Joints are placed at relatively shorter distances
(3.3 to 6.5 m) to reduce the amount of cracking.
 In some cases, transverse joints are skewed 1.3
to 1.6 m in plan so that only one wheel of
vehicle passes the joint at a time.
Simply Reinforced Concrete
Pavements
 Simply reinforced concrete pavements
have dowel for load transfer across joints
spaced at larger distances of 10 to 35
m.
 Temperature steel is used throughout the
slab, with the amount dependent on the
length of slab.
 Tie bars are also commonly used at
longitudinal joints.
Continuously Reinforced
Concrete Pavements (CRCP)
 They have no transverse joints, except
construction joints or expansion joints
at specific locations such as
intersections and bridges.
 They have a relatively high percentage
of steel (minimum 0.6% of x- section
area).
 They also contain tie bars across the
longitudinal joints.
WORKED EXAMPLE
(thickness design)
See handout: PAGE 607
Trial thickness = 7 inch
Modulus of rupture = 650psi
Modulus of subgrade reaction = 150psi