5 Improve

Improve Understanding Six Sigma
Improve Phase
• Design of Experiment
• Factorial Design
• RSM
The Aim of the Improve Phase is to :

a) Selecting the best Combination as per the Desired Response
b) List Down all the Important Steps in Planning an Experiment & Conducting the
experiment by choosing the different levels of the Factors.
c) Making CTQ’s & CTP’s after confirming the Optimum Condtion
Improve - DOE Understanding Six Sigma
Design of Experiment is the active Manipulation of Data. It is

planning a method of experiment. It is a method of gathering data,
sampling and experimenting with that data. The experiment conditions
are controlled with fixed levels of the Factors.
It is very difficult to find out X factors influencing Y through the

experience, logically and clearly, because the factors which
influence on Y are too many and Y value is available to change
according to treatment.
Steps in Planning an Experiment
1) Define the Objective
2) Select the Y Response (Dependent) Variables
3) Select the X (Independent) Variables

4) Choose the X Variable Levels
5) Select the Experimental Design
6) Run the Experiment & Collect the Data
7) Analyze the Data
8) Draw Conclusions
9) Perform Confirmation Run
1. Define the Objective
State the objective of an
experiment in the form:
• Estimate the effects of: [list of independent variables]
• On the responses of: [list of dependent variables]
Examples:
1) Estimate effects of time, temperature and cleaner
concentration on the response of residue.
2) Estimate the effects of region and % floor loading on

sales volume.
While planning an experiment, it is useful to ask the following questions:
1) What decisions are to made with the data?

2) How will the data be analyzed after it is collected?
3) Will the data and analyses allow the required decisions to be made?
If the answer to # 3 is no, then re-design the experiment.
2. Select “Y” response

It is possible to measure several dependent (response) variables and model
each of these as a functions of the independent variables at the same time.
Variable vs. Attribute data

Attribute data (pass/fail) is less than 63% as efficient as variable data
(continuous measurements).
This means that much more data is required to draw statistically valid conclusions.
However, sometimes it is difficult to get quantitative measurements of the response

of interest. It is often possible to use rankings or comparisons to standards.
Don’t forget Gage R&R…
Regardless of the type of data you have you must validate your
measurement system before running your experiment. If it is unacceptable,
it must be improved (reduced) to <20%.
3. Select X’s(Independent) Variables

There are many types of X’s variables:
- Design variables, intentionally varied in the experiment

- Blocking variables
- Variables that are held constant
- Variables that are monitored, but not intentionally changed
- Noise variables
- Lurking variables
Select the X‘s variables to study through:
- Expert opinion - Competitive analysis

- Brainstorming - Supplier input
- Flow charts - Talk the Process
- Baseline data - Rolled Throughput Yield
- Cause & Effect diagrams
4. Choose Levels for the X’s Variables
• The number of levels you choose depends on the objective of the

experiment and the graph of the response.
• If you are searching for the important variables with a screening
experiment, typically two levels are used.
• If you can’t fit a line through the data (a potentially non-linear response),
don’t model with a line.
• If you know the variable is Vital and want to study its effect in detail,
typically more than two levels are used.
The range must be wide enough to show a difference, IF there is a

difference.
Example: Changing temperature by one degree will likely have little

effect on the outcome, and you might incorrectly conclude that
temperature is not an important variable.
Understand that levels must not be beyond the range of feasibility (but
they may be beyond current process range!).
Realize that some combinations in the test will produce unacceptable

responses, and that these results are expected and desirable.
5. Select the Experimental Design
When designing the experiment, consider 10 Key

Elements...
1) Orthogonality
2) Randomization
3) Replication
4) Repetition
5) Controls
6) Lurking Variables
7) Noise Variables
8) Blocking
9) Sample Size
10) Confounding
5.a Select the Experimental Design
1) Orthogonal arrangements (factorial and fractional factorial test plans) are used to
separate the effects of the variables.
2) Randomization to reduce the effects of extraneous variables, and ensure that the
statistical tests of significance are valid.
Randomize:
- Run order
- Assignment of experimental units
- Measurement order
3) Replication (completely re-setting the experiment and obtaining additional results at

the same levels)
- Reduces the variability of an estimate (shorter confidence intervals)
- Gives an estimate of variation and confidence in the results.
5.a Select the Experimental Design
4) Repetition (measure multiple samples from each experimental run)

- Not as beneficial as Replication, but does allow you to estimate variation.
5 Controls and reference distributions. Most experiments are comparative. Including

a control or baseline can be extremely useful.
6) Lurking Variables
These variables that can affect the results but are unknown, uncontrolled, uncontrollable
or un-measurable. The influence of lurking variables can often be reduced by
blocking and randomization.


7) Noise Variables are the variables known (or thought) to affect the results, but
we either cannot or choose not to control them. Examples: humidity, day of the
week, competitor incentives.
To reduce the effect of noise variables, select test variables that can be monitored
across all levels in the experiment.
Example:
We want a washer design that works well for all fabrics and all loads because we
cannot predict or control this in our consumer’s homes. time?and gallons?are test
variables. load Size?(6 or 10 lbs) and fabric Type?(Cotton or Blend) are noise
variables.
We could set up the experiment like this:
(Test Variables) (Noise Variables)
Cotton Cotton Blend Blend Fabric Type
Time Gallons 6 10 6 10 Load Size
10 4 X X X X
10 8 X X X X
10 4 X X X X
10 8 X X X X

8) Blocking : A Block is a group of homogeneous units. In Blocking the independent
units are compared within the block and not between blocks.
Example : If a test was conducted over 2 days then the date can be a block factor
because the variation in the test conditions is very small during the two days.
Salient Features :
• Blocking gives all independent variables an equal or fair chance.
• It gives protection against confounding and Lurking Variables
• Blocking reduces variation and gives higher precision of the estimates
9. Sample Size
There is always a trade off between cost and precision when deciding sample size.
10. Confounding
It is termed as the inability to separate the effects of variables from one another or from one
another or from interactions. All fractional factorials have some degree of confounding.
6. Run the experiment and collect the data
■ Be sure to set up your data sheet before running experiment to be sure all values are
recorded in the desired form.
■ Be sure to participate there during the experiment - you never know what may happen.
- Get to know whether core relation or relative through observation.
- During the experiment, get to know factor level is appropriate with the range or not.
■ It is often useful to retain samples, which can be measured again later if there are
questions about a particular measurement.
■ Successive Experiment :
Its usually more advisable to practice experiment at a small scale rather than big scale
experiment.
At the preliminary experiment, through the preliminary experiment, screen the important
factor and understand mechanism, as well. So you can do more effective experiment
from next time.
7. Analyze the data

- Graph
- Histograms
- Scatter plots
- Cube plots
- Main effects plots - for both mean and standard deviation
- Interaction plots - for both mean and standard deviation
- Contour plots - for Response Surface designs
B) Confidence Intervals - valuable because they give a range of plausible values.
C) ANOVA tables (Session window) - look for low p-values that indicate significant
factors.
8. Draw conclusions
Confirm the following articles.
■ Are the results statistically significant ?

- Are there misusage of the tool used in this steps,
Measurement/Analysis/Improvement?
- Is the statistical treating result reasonable about actual problems?
■ Is there evidence of change?
■ Are the results practically significant?

- Is the process capability improved ?
- Has the “Y”, which selected as a theme, been improved in the long term basis ?
- Are there any side effect?
■ Does the experiment direct you towards how to fix the problem?
■ Should we run additional experiment?

9. Perform Confirmation Run

 The Confirmation Run is necessary to verify that you have truly made
improvements. Confirmation Runs should be set up in rational subgroups,
similar to process base lining. In effect, you are “Re-base lining” your
process at the new settings.
 Be sure to allow the Vital Few X’s to naturally vary within the levels set
during your confirmation run...but again, do not tweak the process. You
want to be sure to capture the natural variation of the process to verify that
you made an improvement.
• Be present during the test run
• Make sure that the levels of the independent variables are accurate
• Be sure the changes do not destroy the equipment, or create a safety concern
• You cannot detect the effect of a 2 degree change if you can control only within
+/- 1 degree
DOE Understanding Six Sigma
DOE
Factorial RSM*
Full Fractional Central Box

Factorial Factorial Composite Behnken
22, 23, 24,..
* RSM : Response Surface Methodology

Factorial Plot
Main Effect Plot Interaction Plot Cube Plot
• Main Effect Plot : is a plot of the means at each level of a factor . Minitab plots the
means at each level of the factor and connects them with a line.
• Interaction Plot : is a plot of means for each level of a factor with the level of a second
factor held constant. An interaction between the factors occurs when the change in
response from the low level to high level of one factor is not the same as the change in
response at the same two levels of a second Factor.
• Cube Plots : It can be used to show the relationships among two to eight factors - with
or without a response measureThe cube plot shows the response means at each point
on the cube where observations were measured.
• It allows for the simultaneous study of the effects that several

factors may have on a process.
FACTORIAL • Factorial Plots allows varying the levels of the factors
DESIGN simultaneously rather than one at a time, thus saving time and
money
• It allows for the study of interactions between the factors.
SCREENING • Screening is used to reduce the number of input variables by

DESIGN identifying the key input variables that affect product quality.
(Process Characterization)
• It allows us to focus on the few really important variables, or the
Potential Factors(“X’s”) "vital few.”
• Screening may also suggest the "best" or optimal settings for
these factors, and indicate whether or not curvature exists in the
responses.
• Optimization experiments can then be done to determine the
Vital Few best settings and define the nature of the curvature.
Full factorial designs

In a full factorial experiment, responses are measured at all combinations of the
experimental factor levels. The combinations of factor levels represent the conditions at
which responses will be measured. Each experimental condition is a called a "run" and the
response measurement an observation. The entire set of runs is the "design."
Total Number of Runs = ( No. of Level ) No.of factors
General full factorial designs
In a General full factorial design, the experimental factors can have any number levels.
For example, Factor A may have two levels, Factor B may have three levels, and Factor C
may have five levels. The experimental runs include all combinations of these factor levels.
General full factorial designs may be used with small screening experiments, or in
optimization experiments.
Example : DOE was done for finding best condition as shown below. Draw
main effects, interaction & cube plot & give your interpretations.
Temp Pressure Height Warpage
SNO Warpage 2
1 100 4 3 2.0 1.9
2 120 6 7 2.1 2.1
3 100 4 7 2.3
4 100 6 3 2.4 T=100,120
5
6
120
120
4
4
3
7
2.6
2.1
P=4,6
7 100 6 7 2.5 H=3,7
8 120 6 3 2.7
9 100 4 3 1.7
10 120 6 7 1.8
11 100 4 7 1.6
12 100 6 3 2.2
13 120 4 3 2.4
14 120 4 7 2.3
15 100 6 7 1.9
16 120 6 3 2.1
Sol :
1.) Enter the first three columns ( Factors ) in the Minitab worksheet
2.) Go to stat > DOE> Factorial > create factorial design

3.) Select all these factors by

double clicking each on each
factor
4.) Click on Design
The Minimum & Maximum values

will be automatically selected.
4.) Click on OK
5) Enter the Response in the

column after center pt
Warpage
2.0
2.1
2.3
2.4
2.6
2.1
2.5
2.7
1.7
1.8
1.6
2.2
2.4
2.3
1.9
2.1
6) Go to DOE
>factorial>factorial plots
7) Select factorial Plots

8) Select Main effect Plot and enter set

up. Select warpage as response &
Temp, Pressure & height as factors by
double clicking on each.
9) Select Interaction Plot and enter set

up Select warpage as response &
Temp, Pressure & height as factors by
double clicking on each.
10) Select Cube Plot and enter set up

Select warpage as response & Temp,
Pressure & height as factors by double
clicking on each.
11) Click OK
Main Effects Plot (data means) for Warpage

Temp Pressure
2.25
2.20
2.15
Mean of Warpage
2.10
2.05
100 120 4 6
Height
2.25
2.20
2.15
2.10
2.05
3 7
The Potential factor is one which has the highest Slope. In this case Temp &
Pressure has the highest slope
Interaction Plot (data means) for Warpage

4 6 3 7
Temp
2.4
100
120
2.2
T emp
2.0
2.4 Pressure
4
6
2.2
P r essur e
2.0
H eight
The Potential factor is one which has the highest Slope. In this case Temp &
Pressure has the highest slope
Great Company Great
Learning from inner
People
experience Understanding Six Sigma
When the results of an experiment are not explainable in the practical
Think about
point of view, consider an interaction, first. Interaction
Level 1 of
Respons B
e Mean
Checking
after the experiment
Moderate Yes No
No Interaction Interaction
Process Knowledge
Eliminate the terms

Level 2 of
from the model 거

Strong
B
Interaction
Level of A
(Facts)
- Interaction can be controlled by an experimenter.
- The presence of an interaction is not clearly checked before analyzing
the data.
- The magnitude of the interaction depends on the number and/or the range
of
levels of factors.
(Remedies)
- Replicate the basic experiment if the highest order of the interactions is Pooling to the
suspected. Experimental Error
(The highest order of the interaction is not tested if there is no replication.)
- Assume there are all possible interactions in the basic analysis.
- After analyzing the basic ANOVA, eliminate the interaction(s) which have
the
small magnitude.
- If there are strong evidence for the interactions, the optimal solution
should be
taken by considering interactions.
(Note that the results should be applied to the examined values/range of
levels.)
LG Global Standard Six Sigma Training 33
Cube Plot (data means) for Warpage
2.20 1.95
2.30 2.40
6
Desired Response
Optimum Cond :
Pressure 1.95 2.20
Temp = 100 deg 7
Height = 3 Height
1.85 2.50
Pressure = 4 4 3
100 120
Temp
Cube Plot is used to find out Optimum condition of three factors at which the
response is desired.
Need of Fractional factorial designs

To minimize time and cost, we can use designs that exclude some of the factor
level combinations. Factorial designs in which one or more level combinations are
excluded are called fractional factorial designs. Minitab generates two-level
fractional factorial designs for up to 15 factors.
Fractional factorial designs are useful in factor screening because they reduce down the
number of runs to a manageable size. The runs that are performed are a selected subset or
fraction of the full factorial design. When you do not run all factor level combinations, some
of the effects will be confounded. Confounded effects cannot be estimated separately and
are said to be aliased. Minitab displays an alias table which specifies the confounding
patterns. Because some effects are confounded and cannot be separated from other effects,
the fraction must be carefully chosen to achieve meaningful results. Choosing the "best
fraction" often requires specialized knowledge of the product or process under investigation.
Example : A molding compound supplier believes that the percent material reacted is a result
of 5 factors (X’s), identified by the operational team.
– Feed rate of the material into the reactor (Liters / min)
– % Catalyst added
– Agitation Rate (RPM)
– Reactor internal temperature (oC)
– Concentration of the raw compounding material (%)
Determine which of these factors are Potential Vital Few X’s.
Solution : Since we are not concerned with interactions at this point, we have chosen a 2 5-1
fractional experiment (16 runs). She has worked with her Advocacy Team to chose the
following levels for each of the five factors:
Factor Low High
1. Feed rate 10 15
2. Catalyst 1 2
3. Agitation 100 120
4. Temperature 140 180
5. Concentration 3 6
Creating a Fractional Design in Minitab
In the main dialog

box enter 5 for the
number of Factors
Display Available Designs... Click
Get information about

fractional factorial
Highlight the 1/2 fraction line,

indicating a 16-run experiment
Enter the Factor Name and Low and High
values for each factor
Click OK
From the main dialog box, click on

options...to bring up the sub-dialog box.
Un-click randomize runs for this in-class
example ONLY! Click OK
Enter the response data gathered from the experiment into a column labeled PC React as shown:
Analyzing a Fractional Design in Minitab
① All Click
② Select and set up
all plots
Responses
Use the double arrow

key, (>>), to select all
factors
The Main Effects Plot shows:

• A strong influence on PC React by Catalyst and Temperature,
with a minor influence by Concentration.
• Feed rate doesn’t have much of an effect.
• Agitation shows no influence on PC React
• If agitation has no effect on Y, can the agitator be turned off in this process
Interaction
InteractionPlot
Plot(data
(datameans)
means)for
forPCReact
PCReact
90
90
Feederate
Feederate
15 70
15 70
10
10
50
90
50
90
Catalyst
Catalyst
2 70
2 70
1
1
50
90
50
90
Agitate
Agitate
120 70
120 70
100
100
50
90
50
90
Temp
Y axis for all graphs = 180
Temp
70
70
180
PCReact 140
140
50
50
Concentrate
Concentrate
The interaction plot shows significant interaction between Temperature and Catalyst
and between Concentration and Temperature?
Interpretation?
Remember that these 2-way interactions are confounded with the 3-way interactions
(from the Aliasing Structure) - interpretations should be made cautiously,
although 3-way interactions are seldom significant.
The Cube plot shows the optimum setting (95% and 93% reacted) within the region tested is:
Cube
CubePlot
Plot(data
(datameans)
means)for
forPCReact
PCReact
6767 8282
6565 7878
5555 4949
5656 4545
66
Concentrate
Concentrate
High Catalyst?(2%)
33 6161 9595
High Temperature?(180oC)
22
6363 9393 Low Concentration?(3%)
Catalyst 5353 6060

Catalyst 120
120
5353 Agitate
Agitate
6969 The impact of feed rate
11 100
100
1010 1515 and agitate is minimal.
Feederate
Feederate
140
140 Temp
Temp 180
180
Response Surface Methodology
Response surface methods are used to examine the relationship between one or more
response variables and a set of quantitative experimental variables or factors. These
methods are often employed after you have identified a "vital few" controllable factors
and you want to find the factor settings that optimize the response. Designs of this
type are usually chosen when you suspect curvature in the response surface
Response surface methods may be employed to

•· Find factor settings (operating conditions) that produce the "best" response
• Find factor settings that satisfy operating or process specifications
• Identify new operating conditions that produce demonstrated improvement in

product quality over the quality achieved by current conditions
• Model a relationship between the quantitative factors and the response

Great Company Great
Learning from inner
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Visualization
Stat > DOE > Response Surface > Contour/Surface Plots…
Keep the same

order for
selecting
factors
The shape of contour/surface plot in uncoded scale is same as that of

coded scale. Hence, use uncoded scale for easy interpretation

Great Company Great
Learning from inner
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Surface Plot of Response vs Cycle, Temp Check the shape for the Pilot Test
response surface Power : about 40%
86
MoSA
84
R e spon se
82
CCD
80
190
180 Cyc le
175 170
180
185
Temp
Optimal condition
Power : more than 85%
Inspect the optimal

condition and
specification limits
- Temp : 180.5~183.5
- Cycle : 181~185
Can be detailed
using Response
optimizer

Great Company Great
Learning from inner
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Determine an optimal condition
Stat > DOE > Response Surface > Response Optimizer…
See additional
explanation on the
right.
Select all considered

responses Technically
select
Use only when the objective
reasonable limits
weights are possible
Specify the goal for
each response
Specify pre-
determined initial
values

Great Company Great
Learning from inner
People
Check the desirability

with dragging the vertical
red lines to a new
position
Check the desirable D-Values
Determine valid specification limits for

two factors with checking D-Value and d-
value for reference.

5 Improve

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Improve Understanding Six Sigma

The Aim of the Improve Phase is to :

Design of Experiment is the active Manipulation of Data. It is

It is very difficult to find out X factors influencing Y through the

Steps in Planning an Experiment

1) Define the Objective

2) Select the Y Response (Dependent) Variables

3) Select the X (Independent) Variables

2) Estimate the effects of region and % floor loading on

While planning an experiment, it is useful to ask the following questions:

1) What decisions are to made with the data?

2. Select “Y” response

Variable vs. Attribute data

However, sometimes it is difficult to get quantitative measurements of the response

Don’t forget Gage R&R…

3. Select X’s(Independent) Variables

- Design variables, intentionally varied in the experiment

Select the X‘s variables to study through:

- Expert opinion - Competitive analysis

4. Choose Levels for the X’s Variables

• The number of levels you choose depends on the objective of the

The range must be wide enough to show a difference, IF there is a

Example: Changing temperature by one degree will likely have little

Realize that some combinations in the test will produce unacceptable

5. Select the Experimental Design

When designing the experiment, consider 10 Key

5.a Select the Experimental Design

3) Replication (completely re-setting the experiment and obtaining additional results at

5.a Select the Experimental Design

4) Repetition (measure multiple samples from each experimental run)

5 Controls and reference distributions. Most experiments are comparative. Including

or un-measurable. The influence of lurking variables can often be reduced by

blocking and randomization.

5. Select the Experimental Design

5. Select the Experimental Design

6. Run the experiment and collect the data

7. Analyze the data

B) Confidence Intervals - valuable because they give a range of plausible values.

Confirm the following articles.

■ Are the results statistically significant ?

■ Is there evidence of change?

■ Are the results practically significant?

■ Should we run additional experiment?

9. Perform Confirmation Run

Full Fractional Central Box

22, 23, 24,..

* RSM : Response Surface Methodology

Main Effect Plot Interaction Plot Cube Plot

• It allows for the simultaneous study of the effects that several

SCREENING • Screening is used to reduce the number of input variables by

Full factorial designs

Total Number of Runs = ( No. of Level ) No.of factors

General full factorial designs

2.) Go to stat > DOE> Factorial > create factorial design

3.) Select all these factors by

4.) Click on Design

The Minimum & Maximum values

5) Enter the Response in the

7) Select factorial Plots

8) Select Main effect Plot and enter set

9) Select Interaction Plot and enter set

10) Select Cube Plot and enter set up

Main Effects Plot (data means) for Warpage