Measure Understanding Six Sigma

Measure Phase

• Gage R & R
• Types of Sampling
• Process Capability
• Four Block Diagram

The Aim of the measure stage is to :

a. To Establish the validity of the measuring system & operator

b. It tells the present Level of the Process.

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Measurement (C.
2.2 Evaluating Measurement System Eisenhart(1963))
- Observed process/product variation includes measurement variation The assignment of numbers to
as well material things to represent the
relations among them with respect
as actual process/product variation. to particular properties
※ Evaluating a measurement system is the basis for Data Analysis.
Measurement System
Observed Process/Product The complete process used to
Observed Process/Product
Variation obtain measurements
Variation
(EX) operations, procedures,
gages
and other equipments,
software,
personnel etc
Actual
Process/Product Measurement Variation Accuracy (ASTM, 1977)
Variation
The degree of agreement of
individual or average
measurements with an accepted
Due to Due to
Variation from Variation from Due to Due to reference value or level
Operators Gage
Between groups Within groups Operators Gage
Precision(ASTM,1977)

Z LT Z ST Repeatability Bias
The degree of mutual agreement
among individual measurements
1.5σ made under prescribed like
Reproducibility Linearity conditions

Stability

LS Target US
L L
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Gage R&R Studies Gage R&R Studies
- Gage R&R Studies is a
- Assessing precision of a measurement system based on the type of experiment
data - Controlling environment of the
and design of data collection. experiment is very important

Continuous Data Attribute Crossed

Type of Data Data - The situation that the replicated
measurements of same part are
possible
Nested
Possibility Crossed Studies Nested Studies Crossed Studies - The situation that the replicated
of Replication
measurements of same part are
not
possible
(EX) Destructive studies etc
Method ANOVA Xbar-R ANOVA Significant Test
of Analysis

Graphical Summaries

Information

O O O O
Repeatability
Reproducibility
Operators O O O O
Gage R&R studies for
Operators X O X X X Nested Situation and
Parts Attribute Data
See, EXT.MFG, EXT.R&D

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Measure Understanding Six Sigma

Six Sigma is based on the measured data. There will be unfavorable consequences
from analysis using statistical tool if we have a problem with measuring system.
What’s more, the process gets worse, then experiment will end up in failure.
Therefore, we do better secure correct measurement system before the project.

Overall Variation

Part to Part Variation Measurement System Variation

Variation due to gage Variation due to Operator

Repeatability Reproducibility

Operator Operator by Part

Gage R & R - Introduction Understanding Six Sigma

σ2Total = σ2Part-Part + σ2R&R

Total variation Variation due to Measurement error variation

differences among the parts.

σ2R&R = σ2Repeatibility + σ2Reproducibility

Measurement error variation Variation due to Variation due to

Gage Operator
Gage R & R - Introduction Understanding Six Sigma

What is Gage R&R

Gage R & R is Gage Repeatability & Reproducibility.

◆ Repeatability = EV(Equipment Variation)

It is the variation observed in the system when one Operator measures the same part twice
using the same gage. Repeatability is the variation due to equipment variation.
Example : Consider one Operator who successively measures the Thickness of paint coating
on Ref L/R part using the same gauge.
Reading 1 = 12.5 , Reading 2 = 12.0 , Difference = 0.5 , variation due to Gage (Repeatability)
◆ Reproducibility = AV(Appraiser Variation)
It is the variation observed in the system when two different operators measures the same part
using the same gage. Reproducibility is the variation due to change in operator.
Example : Consider two Operators who successively measures the Thickness of paint coating
on same Ref L/R part using the same gauge.
Operator 1 = 14.8 , Operator 2 = 14.2 , Difference = 0.6 , variation due to Operator
(Reproducibility )

Total Gage R&R = E.V2 +A.V2

Gage R &R - Long Study Method Understanding Six Sigma

Repeatability ? Repeatability :
“Getting consistent results”
☞ Variation observed with one measurement
device when used several times by one operator
while measuring the identical characteristic on
the same parts.

Measure/Re-measure variation

Reproducibility ?
Operator B
Variation obtained from different operators
using the same device when measuring the Operator C
identical characteristic on the same parts.
Operator A

Reproducibility
Gage R & R - Purpose Understanding Six Sigma

Gage R&R

• Gage R & R is used to ensure that the measured data used for statistical

tests is valid.

• Selection of the most appropriate gage for the task.

• When we want to compare the performance of each Gage.

• When we want to exclude the Gage error from results.

• Maintenance of measurement system ( Calibration )

• For measurement training for existing and New Staff.

Measure ~ Gage R & R Understanding Six Sigma

Two types of Gage R&R Study

◆ Short study method

• Requires minimum 2 operators and minimum 5 parts with each part measured at
least once.
• This method cant separate the total variation Observed through Gage R &R into
repeatability & reproducibility
• Permits speedy acceptance for adapting Gauge.

◆ Long study method

• Requires minimum 2 Operators, minimum 10 parts with each part measured at

least twice.
• This method can divide the total variation observed in the system through Gage
R & R into repeatability & reproducibility, so that we can get to know what we
have to improve Operator or Gage
Gage R & R ~ Short Study Understanding Six Sigma

Short Study Method

Example : The height of a component has specifications given by 5.0 ± 0.5. (tolerance
= 1.0 )
Solution : The Measurements taken by the two Operators for the Five Parts are listed
below Part Operator 1 Operator 2 Ranges (1-2)
1 4.9 4.8 0.1
2 4.7 4.7 0
3 5.2 5.1 0.1
4 5 5.1 0.1
5 4.8 4.7 0.1
Range Sum 0.4

• Average Range ( R-bar ) = R / n = 0.4 / 5 = 0.08

• Gauge Error = ( 5.15 /d) ( R-bar) = (5.15 /1.19) (0.08 ) = 0.3464

5.15 indicates the Confidence Level of 99 % ; 6.0 indicates a Confidence Level of 99.73
%
•Gauge R & R as % of Tolerance = (0.3464 x 100) /1.0 = 34.64 % < 20% ok
Gauge Error is calculated by multiplying the average range by a constant d ( to be
taken from the Table )
Gage R & R ~ Short Study Understanding Six Sigma

d* values for distribution of the average range

Number of parts Number of operators
2 3 4 5
1 1.41 1.91 2.24 2.48
2 1.28 1.81 2.15 2.40
3 1.23 1.77 2.12 2.38
4 1.21 1.75 2.11 2.37
5 1.19 1.74 2.10 2.36
6 1.18 1.73 2.09 2.35
7 1.17 1.73 2.09 2.35
8 1.17 1.72 2.08 2.35
9 1.16 1.72 2.08 2.34
10 1.16 1.72 2.08 2.34
 Gage R & R ~ Guidelines Understanding Six Sigma

Pre Requisites for Gage R & R

★ Blind Test :
• The Operator should not be aware that Gage R&R is going On.
• The Previous Readings should not be conveyed while taking Next Reading.
★ Gage selection(Resolution)
•The Gage must have a resolution of less than or equal to 10% of the specification
or process variation.(One Sided)
• Resolution is the smallest unit of measure the gage is able to read.
•Ex) In case of part feature tolerance equals +/-0.020, Gage must have resolution
0.002 and Gage R&R ≤20% to be recommended.
★ Intentional Sampling :
• The samples must not be randomly selected, the sampling must be proceeded
by a plan, so the total range of variation and specification are covered.
• Most values should lie near the LSL/USL , because the chances of discrepancy
are more near these limits
 Gage R &R ~ Long Study Method Understanding Six Sigma

An acceptable value for a Gage R&R Study (Continuos Data - )

≤ 20% : Acceptable

% Study Variation & % Study Tolerance 20% to 29% : Conditional

≥ 30% : Unacceptable

An improvement plan to lower the gauge R&R variation should be implemented. If there
is no improvement , consideration should be made for the risks associated with high
Gauge R &R

Number of Distinct Categories >4

P Value of the Operator * Part > 0.25

Gage R &R - Long Study Method Understanding Six Sigma

Input : Parts, Operator

Long study method (using Minitab) & Measurement data

Select:
Select:ANOVA
ANOVA
Gage R &R - Long Study Method Understanding Six Sigma

Why ANOVA method is more accurate than X(bar) R Method…..????????

X - R Method ANOVA

Part to Part Variation Part to Part Variation

Repeatability Repeatability

Reproducibility Reproducibility

Operator by Part
Operator

ANOVA Method further breaks the Variation due to Operator(Reproducibility)

into Operator & Operator by Part
Gage R &R - Long Study Method Understanding Six Sigma

Long study method (using Minitab)

Gage R&R Study - ANOVA Method

P-value > 0.25 indicates
Two-Way ANOVA Table With Interaction Hence Gage R&R is acceptable.

Source DF SS MS F P
Parts 9 81.6 9.06667 204.000 0.000
Operator 1 0.1 0.10000 2.250 0.168 If significant, P-value < 0.25 it indicates
Parts * Operator 9 0.4 0.04444 0.889 0.552 that an operator is having a problem
Repeatability 20 1.0 0.05000 measuring some the parts. In that case
Gage R&R is not acceptable.
Total 39 83.1

Two-Way ANOVA Table Without Interaction

Source DF SS MS F P
Parts 9 81.6 9.06667 187.810 0.000
Operator 1 0.1 0.10000 2.071 0.161
Repeatability 29 1.4 0.04828
Total 39 83.1
Gage R &R - Long Study Method Understanding Six Sigma

Long study method (using Minitab)

% Study Variation < 20 % and % Study
Source VarComp (of VarComp)
Total Gage R&R 0.05086 2.21
Tolerance< 20%, Gage R&R is acceptable
Repeatability 0.04828 2.09
Reproducibility 0.00259 0.11
Operator 0.00259 0.11
Part-To-Part 2.25460 97.79
Total Variation 2.30546 100.00

Study Var %Study Var %Tolerance

Source StdDev (SD) (6 * SD) (%SV) (SV/Toler)
Total Gage R&R 0.22553 1.35316 14.85 12.23
Repeatability 0.21972 1.31831 14.47 32.96
Reproducibility 0.05085 0.30513 3.35 7.63
Operator 0.05085 0.30513 3.35 7.63
Part-To-Part 1.50153 9.00919 98.89 225.23
Total Variation 1.51837 9.11024 100.00 227.76

For Gage R&R to be acceptable, number of distinct categories > 4

Number of Distinct Categories = 9
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(4) Diagnostics with Graphs- I C
- Xbar chart by operators
Ga ge R&R S tu die s for P r oje c t TTM(4.15.2005) : Displays the mean of
Reported by: 4.15.2005
measurements
Gage name: T3715 Tolerance: 0.01 for each part with respect to
operator
Date of study: 3.15.2005 Misc: Project TTM
- Evaluate the consistency of
measurements for each operator
Compone nt s of Va ria t ion D Re sp o n se b y P a r t and the validity of the gage
A 100 % Contribution 17.0
% Study Var
- (AIAG)
Pe rc e n t

% Process

50
% Tolerance
16.5 Desirable when the patterns in the
graph for each operator are similar
0
16.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
and at least 50% of the points
Gage R&R Repeat Reprod Part-to-Part
Pa rt should be out of control limits
E
B 1
R C h a r t b y Ap p r a i se r
2 3 Re sp o n se b y Ap p r a i se r
0.10 UCL=0.0969 17.0 D - Measurement by part
Sa m pl e R a n ge

0.05 16.5 : Displays the main effect for parts

_
R=0.0297

0.00 LCL=0
16.0
1 2 3
-within
Desirable when the dispersion
A p p ra i s e r
X b a r C h a r t b y Ap p r a i se r F each part is small and the
C 1 2 3 Ap p r a i se r * P a r t In t e r a c t i o n difference
17.0 17.0 Appraiser between parts is large.
Sa m pl e M e a n

__ 1
A v e ra ge

UCL=16.697
X=16.641 2
LCL=16.585
E
16.5 3
16.5
- Measurement by Operator
16.0
16.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
: Displays the main effect of
operator
Pa rt
- Desirable when the difference
A - Visualization of the result in the between operators is small.( the
study. connected line keeps
horizontality)
Since the purpose of the analysis - Desirable when the variation of
Total
of the measurement system is to F
ofGage R&R is much less than that
understand the total system, the Part-to-Part Variation.
- Operator by part Interaction
use of graphical tools is very : Displays the operator by part
effect
B - Range chart by Operators
important even though the - Displays the variation in the - Desirable when the difference
between each operator/part
guidance of gage characteristics formeasurements made by operator combination is small. (crossed line
are well satisfied. comparisons for some parts indicates presence
- Desirable when all of the plotted of the interaction
points are within control limits

LG Global Standard Six Sigma Training 18

Gage R &R - Long Study Method Understanding Six Sigma

Gage R&R * 100

% Study Variation =
total variation

Gage R&R * 100

% Study Tolerance = 6.0 *
total variation

Gage R & R( Nested ) : Used for Destructive Testing

Gage R & R (Nested ) is used when each part is measured once only as
when measuring.
Ex. The torque release of a bolt during QC sampling, we cannot measure again
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Characteristics of Measurement System
- Measurement should be executed by the right gage, the right
procedure and
the right method.
※ Practitioner should check whether he/she are measuring the right
thing. Precision Low Precision Low
Accuracy Low Accuracy High

Accuracy Gage Assessment & Adjustment

Pre-requests

The difference between the observed average

Bias of measurements and the reference value
Precision High Precision High
The difference in the bias values through the Accuracy Low Accuracy High
Linearity expected operating rage of the gage
The total variation in the measurements obtained
Stability with a measurement system on the same master
or parts when measuring a single characteristic
over an extended time period

Precision Gage R&R

Verification

The variation in measurements obtained with

one measurement instrument when used several
Repeatability times by an appraiser while measuring the
identical characteristic on the same part
The variation in the average of the
Reproducibility measurements made by different appraisers
using the same measuring instrument when Evaluation of Accuracy
measuring the identical characteristic on the See, EXT.MFG, EXT.R&D
same part

LG Global Standard Six Sigma Training 20

Gage R &R - Long Study Method Understanding Six Sigma

Accuracy ? True Accuracy

The degree of agreement of the (Reference)
value
measured value to the true magnitude
(unbiased values).
(Accuracy is typically expressed as 1-%Bias)

* Setting a true value is a one that Observed average

is measured by the most accurate measuring
device.
Stability ? Time 1

Stability is the total variation in the measurements obtained with a

measurement system on the same master or reference value
when measuring the same characteristic over an extended time
period. Stability

Time 2

Bias : It is a measure of the distance between the average value the

measurements and the "True" or "Actual" value of the sample or part.
Gage R &R - Long Study Method Understanding Six Sigma

Linearity ? LSL USL

Actual
values
Linearity is the difference in Actual
the bias values throughout the values
expected operating range of the
gage.
(Gage is less accurate at the low (No Bias)
Reference value
end of specification or operating
range than at the high end).

Reference values

Larger Bias Small Bias

Gage R & R - Discreet Data Understanding Six Sigma

Pre-Requisites Gage R & R (discreet data)

• The Minimum Number of Samples should be at least 20

• Minimum Number of Operators should be at least 2

• Each Operator must take at least two readings of each Part.

Acceptability of Gage R & R (discreet data)

• % Gage R & R should be less than 5 %
Gage R & R - Discreet Data Understanding Six Sigma

Gage R & R (discreet data)

Visual Inspection Gage Study
•The gage is acceptable if both the
Appraiser "A" Appraiser "B"
1 2 1 2 Appraisers (four per part) agree..
1 G G G G
• % Gage R&R = No. of
2 G G G G
3 NG G G G Disagreements/Total Opportunities X100
4 NG NG NG NG
5 G G G G = 3 / 20 x 100% = 15%
6 G G G G
7 NG NG NG NG
• If the results of checkers are different,
8 NG NG G G the gage
9 G G G G
10 G G G G • must be improved and re-evaluated.
11 G G G G
12 G G G G • If the gage cannot be improved, it is
13 G NG G G
14 G G G G
unacceptable and an alternate
15 G G G G measurement system should be found.
16 G G G G
17 G G G G
18 G G G G
19 NG NG NG NG
20 G G G G
Gage R & R - Importance Understanding Six Sigma

From the Gauge R & R Study we can determine the Following :

• Gage resolution is adequate.

• The Measurement System is stable over time.

• The measurement system error is small enough and

acceptable enough relevant to the process variation or
Specification

Gage R & R Indicates that whether the Measurement System is good

enough for the collection of Data.
Measure - Capability Analysis Understanding Six Sigma

Capability analysis is a set of calculations used to assess whether a system is

statistically able to meet a set of specifications or requirements. Specifications or

requirements are the numerical values within which the system is expected to operate, that

is, the minimum and maximum acceptable values. Specifications are numerical

requirements, goals, aims, or standards.

Measure Understanding Six Sigma

Cp = Specification Width Cp = USL- LSL Pp = USL- LSL

Process Capability 6within 6Overall

Cpk = Cp (1- k)
Cp = Product Specification
Ppk = Pp (1- k)
Manufacturing Variability

k = T- CPU = USL - X CPL = X - LSL

USL - LSL 6within 6within
2

Process Capability ( Cp) is the Tolerance width in Relation to the process

capability, expressed as the best short Term performance. Takes no account of
the process centering.

Capability Index (Cpk) accounts for the process centering. Considers

sample data variation & location simultaneously.
Measure - Central Limit Theorem Understanding Six Sigma

Central limit theorem states that as the sample size increases, the sampling
distribution of the mean will approach normality. Statisticians use the normal distribution as

an approximation to the sampling distribution, whenever the sample size is at least 30.
SEM : Standard Error of Mean
Standard error of mean gives the difference between
the standard deviation of Population & Standard
deviation of sample.
SEM *

SEM = p Standard deviation of

(n)1/2 Population

Sample Size

n=8 n=30
Sample Size
Measure - Central Limit Theorem Understanding Six Sigma

From the graph shown on the previous slide, it is evident that for sample size 30 the difference

between the standard deviations of sample and population is very less. Even though this

difference reduces further by increasing sample size, but this reduction is negligible. Hence

while sampling, sample size of 30 is considered as the idle sample size.

Sample Size Difference b/t Standard deviation of

Population and Sample

• Less than 8 high variation

• Between 8 ~ 30 Moderate Variation
• 30 & above Minimum Variation

As the sample size increases, above 8 samples the difference between standard
deviation of Population & sample reduces drastically. At sample size 30 the difference
is minimum and it remains constant & beyond 30 it remains constant., so the curve
line representing the difference becomes parallel to X-axis.
Measure - Sampling Understanding Six Sigma

Types of Sampling

1.) Random Sampling : In this type of Sampling each data point of the Population
has an equal chance/ Probability of being selected.
Example : During the draw of lottery tickets each & every lottery ticket number has an
equal chance of winning the Prize.
2.) Stratified Sampling : In this type of Sampling , the sub group taken for sampling
has data points of same type.
Example : For determining the Quality of Food in the Canteen, if we take the Sample
group in which all Supervisors/Operators/Managers are there, then the difference in
the variation of taste within the sub group would be minimum but among the Sub
groups would be maximum.
3) Clustered Sampling : In this type of Sampling,each & every type of data point
present in the population would be covered in the Sample.
Example : In the above example if take the sample in such a way that in the subgroup
operator, supervisor and manager are taken so the difference in the taste would be
maximum within the sub group and minimum among the subgroup.
Measure Understanding Six Sigma
Black Noise
White Noise
• Black Noise represents the outside influences
• White noise represents the variation on a process that cause average to shift and drift.
present in every process. Also known as Also known as Special Cause or assignable
common cause variation cause variation.
• It is not controllable variation within the • It is potentially controllable variation with the
existing technology. existing process technology.
• Represents that best the process can be • It represents how the process is actually
with the present technology(Inherent process performing over time(Sustained process
capability). capability).
BLACK NOISE
RATIONAL
(Signal)
SUBGROUPS
PROCESS RESPONSE

WHITE NOISE
(Common Cause
variation)

TIME
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2.4 Setting Baseline Usefulness of
- Setting a current level of the Project Y and establishing a stretch goal Six Sigma Meric(s)
and - Quantification : Measuring the
state of a Process
the direction of improvement in the process.
- Determine an appropriate Six Sigma Metric according to the type of - Very significant impact to the
collected opportunity of improvement
by reducing the chance for
data. misunderstandings that lead to
defects
Based on Distribution Based on Count/Proportion - Improving the level of
:Scale(Spread)
Shape, Location, : Ratio on interested Attribute communication in an
organization
Assumptions of
Type of Data Continuous Data Attribute Data Six Sigma Meric(s)
- Continuous Data
: The observed data follow
the normal distribution and
Z-
shift is about 1.5 for a
Cp, Cpk, (Cpm) Z(Bench)-Value Defect Ratio DPU typical
Basic Metrics
process in average
Pp, Ppk (ST, LT), Zshift PPM DPO,DPMO - Attribute Data:
: Defects are randomly
occurred
in a unit and mutually
independent in part/sub-
process steps
Common Sigma-level, RTY
Metric
Want to higher Sigma-level and RTY
Key Concerns
Check Reasonable definition of Defects - There is no One-size-fits-all
Stability and Normality
Independence among Defects over the Units Six
Sigma Metric
: Selecting an appropriate
Metric
for a process is the basis for
setting baseline
LG Global Standard Six Sigma Training 32
Measure Understanding Six Sigma

From a statistics perspective, There are only two problems.

Problem with Spread Problem with Centering

Desired
Desired
Current
Current situation
situation

LSL T USL LSL T USL

Shift

Accurate but not Precise Precise but not Accurate

 Measure Understanding Six Sigma

Process Capability Ratios

The greater the design margin, the lower the Total Defects Per Unit

Design margin is measured by the Process Capability Index (Cp)

Maxium Allowable Range of

Characteristic
Cp = USL - LSL
Normal variation of Process X Cp =
-3 +3 + 3

Process Width

Zst = 3 Cp Design Width

Zlt = 3 Ppk
Measure - 4 Block Diagram Understanding Six Sigma

Block Diagram Poor

2.5

Zshift
2.0 A B
(Process 1.5
Control)
1.0
C D
0.5
Good
1 2 3 4 5 6
Poor Z.st Good
(Process Technology )

A : Poor control, poor technology

B : Must control the process better, technology is fine
C : Process control is good, poor technology
D : World Class
 Measure Understanding Six Sigma

Is it Control or Technology?

Long Term Data Short Term Data

. Data taken over a period of time . Data taken over a short enough
long enough that external factors period of time that there are no
can influence the process. external influences on the
process Z st : Z lt Technology:
Control
. Z lt (lt ) Z st (st )
Zlt is always less tahn Zst,
because the long term value is
Ppk, Pp Cp, Cpk reduced by the shift of the
process
. Defined by technology and process . Defined by technology
control . Process Capability
. Process Performance (Entitlement - The best process
can be)

6 means Zlt=4.5 and Ppk=1.5 6 means Zst=6.0 and Cp=2.0

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2.4.1 Standardization : Z-value & ZBench Interpretation
- Z-(bench) value is a standardized
value
(Assumption)
for the comparison of the
The process is statistically in control and the data from the process are normally
distributed. processes.
The larger value means the better
Z-value One-sided Z-Bench Two-sided process capability
Tolerance value Tolerance - It calls “ Sigma-Level”.
Limit Limit
N(0,1) N(0,1)
Note : Sigma-level is not same as
“sigma” which is a measure of
a
process variation
Probability of Probability of
Defects : P Defects : PL+PU
Z-Bench
Z-value value

0 Limit 0

Example

One-sided : P = 0.0057 → Z = 2.53

N(0,1)
- Two-sided : P1 = 0.0012, P2 =
0.0052
Probability of Probability of
→ Z = 2.49 Defects : PL Defects : PU
P1+P2=0.0064
Yield=1-0.0064
Zlt=normsinv(1-0.0064) Limit 1 0 Limit 2

LG Global Standard Six Sigma Training 37

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Example Two-sided Specification Limits with Target (With raw
data)
One of the main reasons for non-stability over time in the process was the
violation of control standards when different models are changed in the
assembly process. After correcting this violations, the data are collected again
as follows :

- Sample size for within a group : n = 5

- The number of groups : g = 30
- Target and Specification limits : (LSL, Target, USL) = (15.7, 16.5, 17.3)

Process Capability(Checking Stability & Normality.4.15.2005)

X ba r Char t Ca pa bilit y H is t ogr a m
LSL Target USL
UCL=16.6602
Sa mple M e a n

Specifications
16.50
__ LSL 15.7
X=16.2961 Target 16.5
16.25
USL 17.3
16.00
LCL=15.9321
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 15.6 15.9 16.2 16.5 16.8 17.1

R Cha r t Nor m a l P r ob P lot

UCL=1.335
AD: 0.479, P: 0.231
Sa m p le Ra n g e

1.0
_
R=0.631
0.5

0.0 LCL=0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0

L a s t 30 S ubgr oups Ca pabilit y P lot

17.0 Within Within Overall
StDev 0.271367 StDev 0.279248
Va lu e s

16.5
Cp 0.98 Pp 0.95
Overall
Cpk 0.73 Ppk 0.71
16.0
Cpm 0.77
Specs
5 10 15 20 25 30
Sa mple

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Step 1 Calculation of ZBench.LT

Process Capability Analysis with Z-values

Stat > Quality Tools > Capability Analysis > Normal

Toleranc
e Limits

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Results : ZBench.LT

Process Capability of Response

LSL USL
Process Data Within
LSL 15.7 Overall
Target *
USL 17.3 Potential (Within) Capability
Sample Mean 16.2961 Z.Bench 2.19
Sample N 150 Z.LSL 2.20
StDev(Within) 0.271367 Z.USL 3.70
StDev(Overall) 0.279248 Cpk 0.73
Overall Capability
Z.Bench 2.13
Z.LSL 2.13
StDev(Within) = 0.271367 Z.USL 3.59
Ppk 0.71
Cpm *

15.6 15.9 16.2 16.5 16.8 17.1

Observed Performance Exp. Within Performance Exp. Overall Performance
PPM < LSL 6666.67 PPM < LSL 14016.03 PPM < LSL 16387.35
PPM > USL 0.00 PPM > USL 108.12 PPM > USL 162.30
PPM Total 6666.67 PPM Total 14124.16 PPM Total 16549.65

ZBench.LT = 2.13

Process capability in Estimated Long-term

PPM from observed Process capability in
data PPM

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Step 2 Calculation of ZBench.ST

Process Capability Analysis with Z-values

Stat > Quality Tools > Capability Analysis > Normal

Toleranc
e limit

Target and the estimated

StDev(Within) from LT
analysis

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Results : ZBench.ST

Process Capability of Response

LSL USL
Process Data Within
LSL 15.7 Overall
Target *
USL 17.3 Potential (Within) Capability
Sample Mean 16.5 Z.Bench 2.73
Sample N 150 Z.LSL 2.95
StDev(Within) 0.271367 Z.USL 2.95
StDev(Overall) 0.346345 Cpk 0.98
Overall Capability
Z.Bench 2.04
Z.LSL 2.31
Z.USL 2.31
Ppk 0.77
Cpm *

15.6 15.9 16.2 16.5 16.8 17.1

Observed Performance Exp. Within Performance Exp. Overall Performance
PPM < LSL 6666.67 PPM < LSL 1598.99 PPM < LSL 10448.56
PPM > USL 0.00 PPM > USL 1598.99 PPM > USL 10448.56
PPM Total 6666.67 PPM Total 3197.99 PPM Total 20897.13

ZBench.ST = 2.73

Estimated Short-term
Process capability in
PPM

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Step 3 ZShift = ZBench.ST - ZBench.LT

ZShift = 2.73 – 2.13 = 0.6

Summarization Two-sided Specification Limits with Target

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2.4.5 Setting baseline for attribute data Defect
Defect should be related to core customer needs. Anything that causes
(Assumption) Sample size for attribute data should be sufficiently large for customer
including dissatisfaction
the most of random causes and important assignable causes.
Defects are randomly distributed in units and mutually independent Unit
among part/sub-process steps. A standard that is inspected
or
Each Process Step With Partial/Whole Process Steps tested.

Opportunity
All possible chances for a
defect

Basic DPU DPO DPMO YFT YRT YNorm

Metrics

ZLT

Common
Metric Sigma-level

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DPU, DPO, DPMO : Each Process Step
- An opportunity for a defect is defined by real occurrence in the field.
- The number of opportunities for a process should be determined by the mutual
agreement with Cross-functional Team and/or a responsible person in the
organization.

1 Unit
1 Opportunity

1 Unit
5 Opportunity

Example Defect Ratio vs. (DPU, DPO)

OLD NEW

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Example Comparison among Processes with different opportunities

Process (A) Process (B)

Process (A) Process (B)

Defect Ratio 0/10
Number of Units 10 10
Total number of
opportunities
1 5
Total number of
defects
1 3

DPU 1/10 3/10

DPO 1/10*1 3/10*5
DPMO

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Sigma level from process yields
- Sigma level is calculated from the value of YNA.
※ For the meaningful Sigma level,
(1) clearly define the defect and the opportunities and
and(2) collect data as many as possible to include the most of random causes
important assignable causes.

Each Process Step With Partial/Whole Process Steps

DPU/O DPOX106

Basic DPU DPO DPMO YFT YRT YNorm

Metrics
(1-DPO)o

e-DPU

If yields for the steps are not available and DPU and DPO
for the whole process is only possible information,
calculate Z-value using the value of DPO

Must check that the

ZLT collected data include the
most of random causes
ZLT + 1.5 important assignable
and
causes
Common
Metric Sigma-level

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 Measurement System Analysis Understanding Six Sigma

Ok for “product acceptance”

Long study method (using Minitab) considering a products
tolerance.
wo-Way ANOVA Table With Interaction Gage R&R itself is larger than
20%, needs improving
measurement system “process
ource DF SS MS F P control” applications as well.

art 9 2.05871 0.228745 39.7178 0.00000 Gage R&R

perator 2 0.04800 0.024000 4.1672 0.03256
Source VarComp StdDev 5.15*Sigma
perator*Part 18 0.10367 0.005759 4.4588 0.00016
epeatability 30 0.03875 0.001292 Total Gage R&R 0.004438 0.066615 0.34306
otal 59 2.24913 Repeatability 0.001292 0.035940 0.18509
Reproducibility 0.003146 0.056088 0.28885
Operator 0.000912 0.030200 0.15553
Operator*Part 0.002234 0.047263 0.24340
Sum of Squares
Part-To-Part 0.037164 0.192781 0.99282
ANOVA Table Total Variation 0.041602 0.203965 1.05042
(Basis for the estimates)
Source %Contribution %Study Var %Tolerance

Total Gage R&R 10.67 32.66 11.44

If significant, P-value < 0.25 indicates Repeatability 3.10 17.62 6.17
that an operator is having a problem Reproducibility 7.56 27.50 9.63
measuring some the parts. Operator 2.19 14.81 5.18
Operator*Part 5.37 23.17 8.11
Part-To-Part 89.33 94.52 33.09
Total Variation 100.00 100.00 35.01
This value means the number,
not duplicating confidence interval Number of Distinct Categories = 4
of measuring part.

1.5.13
 Measurement System Analysis Understanding Six Sigma

Measurement System Analysis Long Study Method Using Minitab

One-way Analysis of Variance ◈ Number of Distinct
Application Method of Categories
Analysis of Variance for Thickness 1) Number of Distinct Categories = 0 ~ 1
Source DF SS MS F P → Not Acceptable
Part 9 2.05871 0.22875 60.06 0.000 <Measurement System Improvement>
Error 50 0.19042 0.00381 2) Number of Distinct Categories = 2 ~ 4
Total 59 2.24913 → Conditional
Individual 95% CIs For Mean 3) Number of Distinct Categories ≥5
Based on Pooled StDev → Acceptable
Level N Mean StDev -----+---------+---------+---------+-
1 6 2.0667 0.0516 (-*--)
2 6 2.5083 0.0376 (-*--)
3 6 2.3000 0.0316 (--*--)
4 6 2.3250 0.0689 (-*--) .Stat > ANOVA > One-way
5 6 1.9583 0.0585 (--*-) - Response : Thickness
6 6 2.5167 0.0258 (--*-) - Factor : Part
7 6 2.4417 0.0204 (-*--)
8 6 2.2833 0.0516 (-*--)
9 6 2.5083 0.0376 (-*--)
10 6 2.1667 0.1402 (-*--)
-----+---------+---------+---------+-
Pooled StDev = 0.0617 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60

The measurement value is divided by 4 groups(that is, not duplicating number of Confidence Intervals, which 2 operators,
repeating twice on the identical characteristic on the same part using same device. It would be very accurate measurement
that the confidence interval is small on the specific part even though there are measurement repetitions with operators.
The Confidence Interval duplicated due to wide range of it, that is, the group # that is not duplicated by C.I is small that mean
variation of measurement is big.

1.5.14
Measurement System Analysis Understanding Six Sigma

Measurement System Analysis Long Study Method Using Minitab

Graph - Understanding is very useful method to solve the cause as well as how to use ANOVA..

Gage name:
Date of study:
Gage R&R (ANOVA) for Thickness Reported by:
Tolerance:
Misc:
◈ X - Bar Control-Chart
Xbar Chart by Operator • It is very favorable consequence that most
2.6 1 2 3

2.5 of measurement points are out of control limits.

Sample Mean

2.4 3.0SL=2.380 → Control limits are calculated from variation

2.3 X=2.307
2.2
-3.0SL=2.235 between operators.
2.1 Small variation means narrow control limits.
2.0
→ Measurement variation(operator, measuring
1.9
1.8
system) is smaller than parts variation
0 relatively read variation between the parts.
R Chart by Operator
0.15 1 2 3

3.0SL=0.1252
Sample Range

0.10

0.05
R=0.03833

0.00 -3.0SL=0.000

◈ R Control-Chart
• most of measuring points should be in control.
→ Repetition measuring value of each sample shows that there’s no unusual data.

1.5.15
Measurement System Analysis Understanding Six Sigma

Measurement System Analysis Long Study Method Using Minitab

- Interaction “operation * part” was significant on the ANOVA Table described before.
★ Interaction means that the effect of one variable is influenced by the level of another variable.
The effect of one variable is not consistent for all levels of the other variable. Gage R&R ‘Y’ is influenced by interaction
between the parts and operators.
Gage name:
Date of study:
Gage R&R (ANOVA) for Thickness Reported by:
Tolerance:
Misc:
• There is really good agreement among
the operators for all of the parts, except
Operator*Part Interaction for Operator 1 and Part #4.
2.6 Operator You needs to find out why.

2.5
1
2.4 2
3
Average

2.3

2.2

2.1

2.0 • You need to find out why measurement

discrete is large. Find out if there’s a
1.9
problem of measuring difficulty or
Part 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 strange, for example, whether there is a
Burr on the measuring part, sink mark
etc.

1.5.16
Understanding Six Sigma
Understanding Six Sigma
Understanding Six Sigma
Understanding Six Sigma
Understanding Six Sigma
Understanding Six Sigma
Understanding Six Sigma
Understanding Six Sigma
Understanding Six Sigma
Understanding Six Sigma
Understanding Six Sigma
Understanding Six Sigma
Understanding Six Sigma
Understanding Six Sigma
Understanding Six Sigma