Chapter 21

Chapter 21
Agriculture
Chapter 21: Agriculture
Agriculture
• Cultivation of crops and rearing of animals
for human consumption or for use as raw
materials in industries
• Cultivation of crops is known as arable
farming
• Livestock farming is the rearing of animals
• When crops are grown for the farmer’s
own consumption, it is called subsistence
farming
• When crops are grown for sale, it is
commercial farming
Benefits of agriculture in the Caribbean

• Food for the population
• Employment for the
population
• Export income for the
country
• Raw materials for
industries
Importance of
agriculture to the
Caribbean
History of agriculture in the Caribbean

• Started with the Taino and Kalinago tribes
• Crops grown included cassava, cotton, plantain and
maize
• Farming was for subsistence
• In the 17th and 18th centuries, commercial farming was
introduced by the European colonialists
• Crops grown for export included sugar cane, coffee and
cocoa
Types of agriculture in the Caribbean

1. Subsistence farming
• Purpose is to feed the farmer and his family
• Usually little surplus left for sale
• Small land size of one to two hectares
• Little capital and labour required
• Small scale
 Associated with
shifting cultivation
 A plot of forest land is
cleared for farming to
be carried out
 Land is abandoned
when the soil becomes less
fertile
 A new plot of land is
cleared for cultivation
Small-scale farming in Trinidad

2. Peasant farming
• Found in:
– Christiana area and Yallahs valley in Jamaica
– Roseau and Dennery valleys in St Lucia
– Aranguez and Northern Range Mountains of Trinidad
– Mason Hall in Tobago
• Slightly larger scale than subsistence farming
• Surpluses are sold in the markets
• Crops grown include sugarcane, bananas, cocoa, rice,
vegetables and root crops
• Animals are reared to supplement income
3. Commercial arable farming

• Large-scale cultivation of crops solely for sale
• Huge sums of money spent on R&D, machines, technology
and labour
• Large land area of over 200 hectares
• Scientific methods of farming
• Crops grown include sugar cane, rice, bananas, coconuts,
tobacco, coffee and cocoa
• Some farms practise monoculture
4. Commercial livestock farming

• Large-scale farming of animals for sale
• Animals reared include cattle, poultry, goats and pigs
• Found in Guyana’s Rupununi savannah, Trinidad and
Jamaica
Agricultural landscapes
and systems in the
Caribbean
Agriculture as a system
• A system of inputs, processes and outputs (IPO)
• These vary with the type of farming and show the
characteristics of each type of farming
INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUTS Own use

Natural inputs Cultivation of • Crops
• Climate crops • Animal
• Soil • E.g. slash and products For sale
• Relief burn, planting,
irrigation,
Human inputs harvesting
• Seeds/Seedlings
• Animals Rearing of
animals
• Labour
• E.g. feeding
• Tools
animals
• Fertilisers
• Pesticides
Physical factors affecting agricultural location

1. Climate
• Amount and duration of sunlight
• Amount, duration and frequency of precipitation
• Affects the types of crops grown and the types of animals
reared
• E.g. rice cultivation requires temperatures of between 18C
and 27C
2. Relief
• Height, steepness and aspect of the land
• Altitude and aspect together affect the temperature of a
place
• Temperature influences the types of crops grown and the
growth of the plants
• E.g. on the Blue Mountains in Jamaica, coffee is grown at
higher altitudes and sugar cane on the flatter land at lower
altitudes
• Steep land is difficult to cultivate on and restricts the use of
machinery
• Soil may be thinner and less fertile on steep slopes due to
soil erosion
3. Soil
• Structure, composition and fertility of the soil affect the types
of crops that can be grown
• Sandy soils have more space between soil particles and are
easier to plough – suitable for coconut palms which have
fibrous roots
• Clay soils are more compact
and better able to retain water
– suitable for rice which requires
flooded fields
• Fertility of the soil is influenced
by its mineral content (calcium,
magnesium, sodium, etc)
Rice seedlings being

transplanted to the main fields
4. Natural hazards
• Include volcanic eruptions and tropical storms
• Disrupt farming activities from time to time
• Prevent farming activities from being carried out in certain areas
• E.g. volcanic eruptions in Montserrat destroyed half the island and
forced people to migrate to other parts of the island or other
countries
Long term drought

can affect crop
production
Human factors affecting agricultural location

1. Labour
• In subsistence farming, the farmer and his family provide the
labour
• In peasant farming, casual workers are hired during sowing
and harvesting when more labour is needed
• More workers are required on commercial farms as the farms
are large
• On highly-mechanised farms, a small number of workers is
needed, mainly to operate and maintain the machinery
2. Tradition
• Affects the farming methods used
• Influences the size of the farms
• Farms become smaller when the land is divided among the
farmer’s children upon his death or when part of the land is
given as a wedding gift
• Small farms are usually not profitable and it is difficult to
maintain the same level of output
3. Praedial larceny
• Stealing of farm produce
• Common where farmers do not live near their farms
• In Trinidad, a praedial larceny squad has been set up in the
police force
Economic factors affecting agricultural

location
1. Land tenure
• Farmers who own the land tend to be more innovative in
their farming methods
• They often use the land as collateral for government loans,
using the money to improve their farms
• Tenant farmers tend to be less innovative in their methods as
they are less willing to incur the capital expenditure
2. Capital
• Includes money used to purchase seeds, tools and
machinery and to pay wages to workers
• Subsistence farming requires less capital for the inputs
• Large-scale commercial farming is capital-intensive as
greater amounts of inputs are required
3. Transport
• Means of getting farm
produce to the markets
• Efficient and reliable
transport system allows
easy access to and from
the farms
• Subsistence and peasant
farmers rely on animal
transport as roads are less
developed or are lacking in
rural areas
• Large-scale commercial
farming is often
accompanied by a more
efficient transport network
Many small-scale farmer still use animals as
(road or rail) means of transport
4. Market
• Places where the farm produce is
sold or where there is a demand for
the produce
• As commercial farmers sell their
farm produce (locally or overseas),
they are vulnerable to fluctuations
in market conditions such as
varying demand
• Proximity to the market is important
for farms that produce perishable
food crops such as vegetables
Farm produ
c e being sold
a t a m ar k et
5. Technology
• At the lower end, there are simple tools like hoes and rakes
• At the other end, there are more sophisticated machines,
modern irrigation systems, higher-yielding seeds and R&D
• A new and improved breed of cattle in Trinidad known as the
buffalypso is the result of R&D
• Technology allows higher yields and helps farmers to
overcome the limitations of the physical environment
• Refrigeration, better packaging
and faster air, sea and land
transport allow farm produce to
be transported over greater
distances to cater to a larger
market
A buffalypso
6. Government policies
• Actions of the government can have great influence on the
livelihood of farmers directly or indirectly
• Governments can help farmers affected by a natural disaster
by seeking financial assistance through CARICOM, the
World Bank or other international agencies
• E.g. in the aftermath of Hurricane Ivan in 2004, CARICOM
countries were instrumental in rehabilitating the nutmeg
industry of Grenada
• Governments can also help loss-making industries to
diversify, e.g. the Caroni diversification programme in
Trinidad
7. Trade unions and non-governmental organisations

(NGOs)
• Trade unions are instrumental in negotiating for better
employment terms and conditions for workers
• NGOs offer farmers support in their efforts to improve their
farming methods
8. Globalisation
• Globalisation has resulted in greater trade and competition
among countries
• Inefficient farms are forced to improve their farming methods
or they will be driven out of the market by more efficient ones
Changing role of agriculture in the Caribbean

Decreasing importance
• Decline in acreage due to urbanisation and
industrialisation
• Diversification of the economy away from agriculture to
manufacturing, tourism and other tertiary activities such
as offshore banking
• Less important as a source of employment
• Percentage of workforce employed in the primary
industry is smaller than that engaged in the secondary
and tertiary industries
GDP contribution of each type of

economic activity
Contribution to GDP (%)
Country Primary Secondary Tertiary
industry industry industry
Bahamas 3 7 90
Cayman Islands 2 3 95
Haiti 28 20 52
Jamaica 5 34 62
Martinique 6 11 83
Netherlands Antilles 1 15 84
Puerto Rico 1 45 54
St Lucia 7 20 73
Suriname 13 22 65
Trinidad & Tobago 1 57 42
Virgin Islands 1 19 80
Percentage of labour force in the

three economic sectors
Percentage of labour force (%)
Country Primary Secondary Tertiary
industry industry industry
Bahamas 5 5 90
Cayman Islands 1 13 86
Haiti 66 9 25
Jamaica 19 17 64
Martinique 10 17 73
Netherlands Antilles 1 20 79
Puerto Rico 3 20 77
St Lucia 22 25 54
St Vincent & Grenadines 26 17 57
Suriname 8 14 78
Trinidad & Tobago 10 14 77
Virgin Islands 1 19 80
Globalisation
• Increased competition from low-cost producers in the
global market for products such as bananas and sugar
cane
• Competition from developing countries in Africa, Latin
America and the Pacific for the European and American
markets
• Difficulty in maintaining preferential marketing
arrangements with traditional markets such as the
European Union
Diversification
• Pressure to increase yields and quality of produce
through the use of technology
• E.g. a more resistant breed of cattle known as
buffalypso was developed in Trinidad
• Need to diversify into other types of produce
• E.g. the Caroni diversification programme in Trinidad
involves the introduction of crops other than sugar cane
such as passion fruit, citrus, paw paw and watermelon
as well as the introduction of livestock farming (cattle,
sheep, goats) and aquaculture (shrimp, fish)
Government assistance
• Through CARICOM, Caribbean countries are in a
stronger position in trade negotiations and in the
opening up of new markets
• CARICOM market is an important source of revenue for
the region’s agricultural industries
• Peasant farmers can now sell their produce in the
regional market instead of being confined to the small
urban markets within their own country
Trends in Caribbean agriculture

Peasant farming
• Small-scale farming
• Soils are less fertile compared to plantations, where
crops are grown for sale
Small-scale mixed farming

• Growing of crops and rearing of animals
• Main purpose is to feed the farmer and his family
• Surpluses are sold to earn some money
• Crops grown include tomatoes and cabbage
• Animals reared include pigs and chicken
Small-scale market gardening

• Main crops grown are vegetables such as tomatoes
and lettuce
• Most of the produce is sold to nearby towns and cities
Small farm holdings

• Commercial crops are grown for sale to the processing
factories
• Crops include coffee, bananas and sugar cane
Case study: Peasant

farming in Trinidad
and Tobago
Location
Trinidad:
• Caroni and Naparima plains
• Foothills and valleys of the Longdenville
Northern Range Mountains
• Wetland areas such as the
Nariva Swamp
Tobago:
• Charlotteville in the northeast
• Coastal areas to the south and
north of the Main Ridge
Mountains 0 10 20km
• Western lowland areas
Main peasant farming areas

in Trinidad
Characteristics of peasant farming
INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUTS For

• Tilling the soil • One crop – subsistence
Physical, e.g.:
• Rain several times a year several types and
of
• Soil • Planting the For sale
vegetables
Human, e.g.: seedlings
• Land • Adding fertilisers
• Capital • Weeding the field
• Tools
• Labour • Harvesting the
vegetables every one
• Seedlings
to two months
IPO system of small-scale market gardening

Inputs
1. Land
• Small area, usually covering one to two hectares
• More than 70% of the farms are smaller than four hectares
• Land is farmed intensively to maximise output
• As many as four rounds of cultivation a year
2. Labour
• Small labour force, usually less than ten persons
• Manpower is provided by the farmer and his family
• Much labour is needed during growing and harvesting
• Fertilisers, insecticides and weedicides are used to increase
productivity
3. Capital
• Small capital requirement due to small
amounts of inputs and low level of technology
• Farmers take loans from the Agricultural
Development Bank of Trinidad and Tobago
and from commercial banks
4. Technology
• Low level of technology
• Traditional hand tools such as rakes and
hoes are used
• Tractors and backhoes are now more
commonly used
Small tractors like this is

commonly used on small farms
Layout of a typical peasant farm in Trinidad

Processes
1. Tilling
• Takes place before a new crop of
vegetables is grown
• Involves digging up a thin layer of topsoil to
aerate the soil
• Simple tools such as hoes and rakes are
used
• Done manually about four times a year
2. Planting
• Seedlings are purchased and planted in the
prepared soil
• Natural (manure) and chemical fertilisers
Blades us
are added a week or two later ed on a
mechanic
• Weeding and spraying of pesticides are al tiller
done regularly
3. Harvesting
• Done throughout the year as
different crops mature at different
times of the year
• Intensive use of labour as the crops
are perishable and have to be
harvested quickly
• Crops are usually sent to the
markets using pickup trucks or
station wagons or in the trunk of
private vehicles
• In the Nariva Swamp, bison carts
are a common means of transport
Farmers use animal transport

Outputs
• One or two crops are harvested each time
• Mostly sold in nearby towns and urban markets
• Sold in various ways:
– Weekend markets
– Roadside, especially along highways
– Supermarkets and retailers
– Government institutions such as hospitals and schools
– Factories or processing plants
– Hotels and restaurants, especially in Tobago
– Agricultural marketing boards
– Wholesalers
Obstacles to progression of
peasant farming
• Natural hazards such as floods and
pestilence
• Gluts and shortages as a result of the
seasonality of the produce
• Lack of uniformity in the quality of
produce
• Poor infrastructure, hampering
transportation of produce to the
markets
• Unpredictability of income
• Struggle with the vicious cycle of
poverty
Access to resources needed to break out of the cycle:

Capital, education, protection from praedial larceny,
land availability, transport and access to markets
Cycle of poverty of the peasant farmer

Plantation agriculture
• Commercial crops are grown for export
• Crops grown include sugar cane, bananas, coffee and
cocoa
• Sugar cane is the main plantation crop in the Caribbean
• With the nationalisation of sugar production, smaller
sugarcane estates have been consolidated into larger
ones
Case study: Sugar production in Guyana

• Sugar cane is the main export crop of Guyana
• Guyana Sugar Corporation (GUYSUCO) is responsible
for sugar production in the country
A sugar plantation
Contribution to the country

• Major employer – about 100,000 out of the population
of 769,100
• Source of foreign exchange
• Infrastructure development and maintenance
• Research and development
• Development of industries and small businesses
• Support of community services such as housing, health
care and potable water
• Education and sports
• Rural stability
• Environmental preservation
Location
• Northeastern part of
the country
• Along the coast,
between Essequibo
River and
Courentyne River
• Near Georgetown
(the capital) and
New Amsterdam
0 100km
Characteristics of sugar cane plantations
INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUTS

Physical, e.g.: • Preparing the fields • One crop – For sale
• Rain once every five to sugar cane
• Soil six years
Human, e.g.: • Planting the
• Land seedlings or cuttings
• Capital • Adding fertilisers
• Tools • Weeding the fields
• Labour
• Harvesting every 18
• Seedlings or
months
cuttings
IPO system of a sugar estate

Inputs
1. Land
• Large area, covering hundreds of hectares
• GUYSUCO owns five plantations covering a total of 50,000
hectares of land
2. Capital
• Large amount of capital required
• Needed for construction of infrastructure such as roads,
housing for workers and processing mills, and for purchase
of machinery and transportation vehicles
• Also needed for day-to-day running of the estate,
maintenance of machinery, R&D and payment of wages
• GUYSUCO spends over US$30 million each year on the
purchase of machinery parts and fertilisers
3. Labour
• Hundreds of skilled and unskilled workers are required
• Skilled labour is needed to manage the business operations
• Unskilled labour is needed to tend to the estates, e.g.
planting, weeding, adding fertilisers and transporting the
produce to the mills
4. Technology
• Wide range of tools used, from machetes and hoes to large
tractors
• Some sugar estates are equipped with their own processing
mills
Processes
• Sugar estates have a network of irrigation and drainage canals
• Water from the canals is used to flood the fields during dry spells
in the months before replanting
• This process called flood-fallowing destroys weeds and
replenishes the soil nutrients lost during burning at harvest time
• Land is cleared for new seedlings or cuttings to be planted
• Fertilisers are added and weeding is carried out when the sugar
cane plants are young
• Sometimes pesticides are sprayed
• Harvesting is done during the dry season
• The sugarcane plants are cut manually and floated down the
canals on punts (flat-bottomed platforms) to the processing
factories
Layout of sugar cane fields along the coast

Outputs
• The sugarcane plants are processed and exported as sugar and
molasses
• Export of sugar is an important source of revenue for Guyana
• In 2006, it earned the country US$145 million
Quantity exported (metric tonnes)

Destination
1999 2000
Europe (under EU Protocol) 178,076 179,222
Europe (under Special 50,472 31,757
Preference Sugar agreement)
USA 12,600 24,253
CARICOM countries 29,790 42,038
Total 270,938 277,270
Trends in commercial arable farming in the

Caribbean
• Decrease in importance as a contributor to GDP
• Loss of trade protection for sugarcane and bananas in
traditional markets
• Use of modern farming equipment such as tractors and
light aircraft (to spray fertilisers and pesticides)
• Diversification into other crops such as rice
• Increase in production of crops
for niche markets, e.g. the
growing of ackee, the national
fruit of Jamaica
The ackee fruit

• Linking of agriculture to food processing and service

industries to form a whole agribusiness chain
• E.g. large companies are involved in not only the
growing and processing of the crops but also the sale of
the produce in their own supermarkets
• More sophisticated packaging
• More emphasis on branding
Main trends in commercial arable farming in the Caribbean

Loss of trade
protection for
traditional export crops
Decreasing importance
of commercial arable Greater use of
farming modern farming
equipment
Trends in
commercial arable
farming in the
Caribbean
di Im
st pr
ri o
an but vem n g to
d ion en i
s ion ps
re t a
ta net in cre cat cro
ili wo
ng r In sifi od
k er fo
v
Increasing di her
ot
cultivation of crops
for niche markets
Case study: Sugar Cane farming in Brazil

• Brazil is an emerging economic giant
• Brazil is the world’s largest producer and exporter of
sugar
• Brazil produces approximately 40 percent of the world’s
sugar, and almost 25 percent of the world’s sugar
exports
• It is also the lowest cost producer and can therefore
make a profit even at low international sugar prices
• In 2017, total sugar production was over 800 million
tonnes compared to less than 1.0 million tonnes in
Guyana
• In 2011 there was a record production of over 900
million tonnes of sugar cane
Main sugar cane growing areas in Brazil

Brazil’s sugar cane land usage

Characteristics of sugar cane cultivation in Brazil

Inputs
1. Land
 Sugar cane is cultivated on over 95,000 sq. km of land
 This is more than 1% of Brazil’s land area
2. Labour
 The average size of the labour force on a sugar cane farm is
ten, with numbers generally ranging from less than 5 to over 100
 These workers even though they earn low wages are relatively
better paid than workers involved in many other types of farming
 During harvesting, migrant workers travel to work on the sugar
cane farms
Processes
• The fields get prepared
• Machines are used to plough the fields and the cuttings
are planted
• Crops are periodically sprayed against insect attacks
and weeds are removed in the early stages of growth
• During dry spells, irrigation is important
• There are over 400 large sugar/ethanol mills in Brazil
• Water-use by mills is reduced by reusing the water
consumed
Outputs
• The main outputs are sugar and ethanol
• Sugar is used in the domestic market and in the export
market for ethanol, bioelectricity, solvents and
detergents
• Ethanol is an alternative use for petrol and is used as a
fuel for motor vehicles
• Bioelectricity is a form of renewable energy that does
not pollute the environment
• It is mostly made from the bagasse (fibre) of the sugar
cane
• Bioelectricity is used by over one million people, which
is almost 2 percent of total national use
Trends in sugar cane farming in Brazil
• Sugar cane farms in Brazil are vast, covering thousands of

hectares with the largest over 20,000 hectares
• There has been an overall increase in farm production and
diversification into other food crops
• In the last 30 years the sugar cane sector has increased
due to technological progress enabled by mechanization,
use of chemicals and fertilizers, new varieties of sugar cane
and improved cropping practices
Trends in sugar cane farming in Brazil
• The use of sugar for ethanol has also been increasing

• Some of Brazil’s sugar cane farms have been undergoing
agro-industrialization
• Alternative crops such as fruits and vegetables are being
grown in increasing amounts
• Some sugar cane lands have been allocated to non-
agricultural activities such as real estate development,
manufacturing and tourism
Challenges
• Sugar cane production on such a massive scale
• The perishable sugar cane must be brought from the field to
the factory as quickly as possible, and sugar carried from
the factory to storage and shipping points just as quickly
• During harvesting, the mill has to work non-stop on a daily
basis crushing multiple sugar cane varieties
• Government assistance such as subsidies is important for
the development of the sugar cane industry and agriculture
as a whole
• The sugar cane industry must balance its modern
agricultural system with environmental preservation, social
equity, and poverty alleviation especially in the agricultural
rural areas

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Chapter 21

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Chapter 21

Benefits of agriculture in the Caribbean

History of agriculture in the Caribbean

Types of agriculture in the Caribbean

Small-scale farming in Trinidad

3. Commercial arable farming

4. Commercial livestock farming

INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUTS Own use

Physical factors affecting agricultural location

Rice seedlings being

Long term drought

Human factors affecting agricultural location

Economic factors affecting agricultural

7. Trade unions and non-governmental organisations

Changing role of agriculture in the Caribbean

GDP contribution of each type of

Percentage of labour force in the

Trends in Caribbean agriculture

Small-scale mixed farming

Small-scale market gardening

Small farm holdings

Case study: Peasant

Main peasant farming areas

Characteristics of peasant farming

INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUTS For

IPO system of small-scale market gardening

Small tractors like this is

Layout of a typical peasant farm in Trinidad

Farmers use animal transport

Access to resources needed to break out of the cycle:

Cycle of poverty of the peasant farmer

Case study: Sugar production in Guyana

Contribution to the country

Characteristics of sugar cane plantations

INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUTS

IPO system of a sugar estate

Layout of sugar cane fields along the coast

Quantity exported (metric tonnes)

Trends in commercial arable farming in the

The ackee fruit

• Linking of agriculture to food processing and service

Main trends in commercial arable farming in the Caribbean

Case study: Sugar Cane farming in Brazil

Main sugar cane growing areas in Brazil

Brazil’s sugar cane land usage

Characteristics of sugar cane cultivation in Brazil

Trends in sugar cane farming in Brazil

• Sugar cane farms in Brazil are vast, covering thousands of

Trends in sugar cane farming in Brazil

• The use of sugar for ethanol has also been increasing

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