THERMODYNAMICS 2

Chapter 2. Vapor and Combined Power Cycle

• Rankine cycle. The ideal cycle and deviation of actual cycle from idealized one.
• How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle
• Combined Gas-Vapor Power cycle

Reference: "Thermodynamics, an engineering approach" Eighth edition. Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles. Chapter 10
RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES

William J.M. Rankine

Mechanical engineer
1820-1872
 RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES

1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump

2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser

William J.M. Rankine

Mechanical engineer
1820-1872

1. Water enters the pump as saturated liquid at state 1

2. Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2, leaves as a
superheated vapor at state 3.
3. The superheated vapor at state 3 enters the turbine
4. At state 4, where steam enters the condenser. At this state, steam
is usually a saturated liquid–vapor mixture with a high quality.
Steam leaves the condenser as saturated liquid and enters
the pump.
 As more heat transferred the temperature keeps rising until it reaches 100 C. At this
point water is still a liquid but any heat addition will cause some of the liquid to
vaporize. A liquid that is about to vaporize is called saturated liquid.

 Once, boiling starts, the temperature stops rising until the liquid is completely
vaporized. Any heat loss from this vapor will cause some of the vapor to condense. A
vapor that is about to condense is called saturated vapor.

 If the temperature of the vapor is enough for ( for example, 300C), if we transfer some
heat from the vapor, the temperature may drop somewhat, but, no condensation, will
take place, as long as temperature remains above 100C (for P=1atm). A vapor that is
not about to condense ( not a saturated vapor) is called superheated vapor.
 RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES

1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump

2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser

William J.M. Rankine

Mechanical engineer
1820-1872

1. Water enters the pump as saturated liquid at state 1

2. Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2, leaves as a
superheated vapor at state 3.
3. The superheated vapor at state 3 enters the turbine
4. At state 4, where steam enters the condenser. At this state, steam
is usually a saturated liquid–vapor mixture with a high quality.
Steam leaves the condenser as saturated liquid and enters
the pump.
RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES

1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump

2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser

Click William J.M. Rankine

Mechanical engineer
1820-1872

Pump (q=0) :

Boiler (w=0): 𝒒 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒘 𝒏𝒆𝒕

𝜼=𝟏 − =
𝒒 𝒊𝒏 𝒒 𝒊𝒏
Turbine (q=0):

Condenser (w=0):
RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES

1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump

2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser

Click William J.M. Rankine

Mechanical engineer
1820-1872

Why Water???
Phase diagram of water
Phase diagram of water

Rankine cycle
 Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture
To analyze this mixture properly, we need to know the proportions of the liquid and vapor
phases in the mixture. This is done by defining a new property called the quality- x as the ratio
of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the mixture:

𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟
𝑥=
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 =𝑚𝑣 +𝑚 𝑙
 Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture
To analyze this mixture properly, we need to know the proportions of the liquid and vapor
phases in the mixture. This is done by defining a new property called the quality- x as the ratio
of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the mixture:

𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟
𝑥=
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 =𝑚𝑣 +𝑚 𝑙

Quality has significance for saturated mixtures only. It has no meaning in the compressed liquid
or superheated vapor regions. Its value is between 0 and 1. The quality of a system that consists
of saturated liquid is 0 (or 0 percent), and the quality of a system consisting of saturated vapor is
1 (or 100 percent).
 Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture
To analyze this mixture properly, we need to know the proportions of the liquid and vapor
phases in the mixture. This is done by defining a new property called the quality- x as the ratio
of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the mixture:

𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟
𝑥=
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 =𝑚𝑣 +𝑚 𝑙

Quality has significance for saturated mixtures only. It has no meaning in the compressed liquid
or superheated vapor regions. Its value is between 0 and 1. The quality of a system that consists
of saturated liquid is 0 (or 0 percent), and the quality of a system consisting of saturated vapor is
1 (or 100 percent).

==
Click
 DEVIATION OF ACTUAL VAPOR POWER CYCLES FROM IDEALIZED ONES
The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle, as irreversibilities in various components.

• Fluid friction
• heat loss to the surroundings

are the two common sources of irreversibilities.

Deviation of actual vapor power The effect of pump and turbine

cycle from the ideal Rankine cycle irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine
cycle
 DEVIATION OF ACTUAL VAPOR POWER CYCLES FROM IDEALIZED ONES
The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle, as irreversibilities in various components.

• Fluid friction
• heat loss to the surroundings

are the two common sources of irreversibilities.

Efficiency of pumps and Turbines

Deviation of actual vapor power The effect of pump and turbine

cycle from the ideal Rankine cycle irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine
cycle
 HOW CAN WE INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE RANKINE CYCLE?
The average fluid temperature should be as high as possible during heat addition and as low as possible during heat
rejection.
 HOW CAN WE INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE RANKINE CYCLE?
The average fluid temperature should be as high as possible during heat addition and as low as possible during heat
rejection.

• Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)

The effect of lowering the condenser

pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle
 HOW CAN WE INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE RANKINE CYCLE?
The average fluid temperature should be as high as possible during heat addition and as low as possible during heat
rejection.

• Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)

• Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases Thigh,avg): The temperature to which steam can be superheated is
limited, however,by metallurgical considerations. Presently the highest steam temperature allowed at the turbine inlet is about 6208C
(11508F).

The effect of lowering the condenser The effect of superheating the steam
pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle to higher temperatures on the ideal
Rankine cycle.
 HOW CAN WE INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE RANKINE CYCLE?
The average fluid temperature should be as high as possible during heat addition and as low as possible during heat
rejection.

• Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)

• Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases Thigh,avg): The temperature to which steam can be superheated is
limited, however,by metallurgical considerations. Presently the highest steam temperature allowed at the turbine inlet is about 620 C (1150 F).
• Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)

The effect of lowering the condenser The effect of superheating the steam
pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle to higher temperatures on the ideal The effect of increasing the boiler
Rankine cycle. pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle.
 THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE
How can we take advantage of the increased efficiencies at higher boiler pressures without facing the problem of
excessive moisture at the final stages of the turbine?
 THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE
How can we take advantage of the increased efficiencies at higher boiler pressures without facing the problem of
excessive moisture at the final stages of the turbine?

1. Superheat the steam to very high temperatures before it enters the turbine. This would be the desirable solution since
the average temperature at which heat is added would also increase, thus increasing the cycle efficiency. This is not a
viable solution, however, since it requires raising the steam temperature to metallurgically unsafe levels.
 THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE
How can we take advantage of the increased efficiencies at higher boiler pressures without facing the problem of
excessive moisture at the final stages of the turbine?

1. Superheat the steam to very high temperatures before it enters the turbine. This would be the desirable solution since
the average temperature at which heat is added would also increase, thus increasing the cycle efficiency. This is not a
viable solution, however, since it requires raising the steam temperature to metallurgically unsafe levels.

2. Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it in between. In other words, modify the simple ideal Rankine
cycle with a reheat process. Reheating is a practical solution to the excessive moisture problem in turbines, and it is
commonly used in modern steam power plants.
 THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE
How can we take advantage of the increased efficiencies at higher boiler pressures without facing the problem of
excessive moisture at the final stages of the turbine?

1. Superheat the steam to very high temperatures before it enters the turbine. This would be the desirable solution since
the average temperature at which heat is added would also increase, thus increasing the cycle efficiency. This is not a
viable solution, however, since it requires raising the steam temperature to metallurgically unsafe levels.

2. Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it in between. In other words, modify the simple ideal Rankine
cycle with a reheat process. Reheating is a practical solution to the excessive moisture problem in turbines, and it is
commonly used in modern steam power plants.

The average temperature at which

heat is transferred during reheating
increases as the number of reheat
stages is increased.
COMBINED GAS–VAPOR POWER CYCLES

The combine cycle of greatest interest is the gas-turbine (Brayton) cycle topping a
steamturbine (Rankine) cycle, which has a higher thermal efficiency than either of the
cycles executed individually.

Gas-turbine cycles typically operate at considerably higher temperatures than steam

cycles. The maximum fluid temperature at the turbine inlet is about 620 C for modern
steam power plants, but over 1425 for gas-turbine power plants. It is over 1500 at the
burner exit of turbojet engines.
COMBINED GAS–VAPOR POWER CYCLES