Metal Cutting and Machine tools

Mechanism of Machining

UNIT-2
 Introduction
• Machining is a process of removal of material gradually
in the form of chips from the preformed blanks
• Chips can be classified as Favourable or unfavorable
based on shape, size and color to indicate the
machinability of the material
• Almost all machining parameters and levels of process
parameters and the machining environment produces
play a significant role on the pattern of chips
• Mechanism of machining helps to generate favourable
chips by assessing all the above parameters
 Mechanism of Chip formation –
Ductile Materials
• The basic two mechanisms that accomplish chip
formation are Yielding (Ductile materials)and Brittle
fracturing (Brittle materials)
• The nature and amount of deformation of chips due to
primary and secondary shear deformation of the chips ahead
and along the tool face depend on
• Work material
• Tool: material and geometry
• Cutting velocity and feed
• Cutting fluid application

• Experimental studies to understand the process of

deformation during chip formation
• Study of circular grid deformation
• Microscopic study of frozen chip
• Study of running chips with high speed camera
fitted with low magnification microscope
 Mechanism of Chip formation –
Brittle Materials
• The basic two mechanisms that accomplish chip
formation are Yielding (Ductile materials)and Brittle
fracturing (Brittle materials)
• A small crack develops at the tool tip due to
wedging action
• For ductile materials – yielding happens
• For brittle materials – crack propagates due to
stress concentration.
• It produces discontinuous chips (irregular size
and shape)
 Classification of Chips
• The size and shape of a metal machining chip reflect
the characteristics and effectiveness of a specific
machining process. However, the specific type of
chip generated is significantly impacted by both the
properties of the material being cut and the various
cutting conditions.
• Chips can be classified into three types
• Discontinuous or segmental form
• Continuous or ribbon type
• Continuous with built-up edge
 Discontinuous or segmental form
• It consist of elements fractured into fairly small pieces ahead of
cutting tool.
• Occurs mostly with brittle materials
• Material rupture during plastic deformation and form chips as
small pieces
• As these chips are generated, the cutting edge smoothens out
irregularities, resulting in a relatively satisfactory finish
• Tool life is also good.
• Low power consumption
• Under specific conditions, especially at very low speeds and with
a low coefficient of friction, discontinuous chips can also be
generated in certain ductile materials.
• Conditions promote discontinuous chips : Brittle material,
Greater depth of cut, low cutting speed and small rake angle
 Continuous or ribbon type
• It consists of elements bonded firmly together without
being fractured
• Microscopic view shows no signs of tears or discontinuities
• Upper side has small notches and lower side is smoothy
and shiny
• It is considered most desirable for low friction at the tool
chip interface, lower power consumption, long life and
good surface finish.
• Favourable conditions : ductile material, fine feed, high
cutting speed, large rake angle, keen cutting edge, smooth
tool face and an efficient lubrication system.
 Continuous with built-up edge
• Building up of metal ridge on the top surface of the tool and above
the cutting edge occurs.
• In the initial stages of cutting ductile metals, compressed and highly
stressed metal accumulates at the tool's extreme edge.
• Due to high heat and pressure, the accumulated metal gets welded
to the cutting tip.
• This welded metal forms a false cutting edge on the tool, commonly
known as a built-up edge (strain hardened and brittle).
• Weaker chip metal tears away as it moves along the tool face.
• Some times it may become unstable and move away with chip
• It forms permanent – cut is continuous at high speeds
• It can affect the rake angle slightly
• Favourable conditiions: low cutting speed, low rake angle, high feed,
lack of cutting fluid and large depth of cut
Characteristics of continuous chip
formation
Mathematical expression of cutting forces
using MCD
PXY

PN
N η
R PZ
γ
O
η-γ O
βO
PS
β +η-γ
O O

γ
O
F

γ
O
 Effect of Tool Geometry on Cutting forces
• Tool geometry plays a crucial role in determining cutting forces during
machining processes.
• The specific effects can vary depending on factors such as tool type,
material being cut, cutting conditions, and the machining operation. Here
are some general effects of tool geometry on cutting forces:
• Tool Rake Angle:
– Positive Rake Angle: A positive rake angle reduces cutting forces by
facilitating the shearing action of the tool. It helps in minimizing
friction and heat generation, resulting in lower cutting forces.
– Negative Rake Angle: Negative rake angles can increase cutting forces
as they tend to cause more rubbing and plowing rather than clean
cutting.
• Tool Nose Radius:
– The nose radius affects chip formation and can influence cutting
forces. Smaller nose radii may lead to higher cutting forces, but they
can also improve surface finish.
• Clearance Angle:
– Proper clearance angles prevent the tool from rubbing against the
workpiece, reducing cutting forces. Insufficient clearance can lead to
increased friction and higher cutting forces.
• Cutting Edge Radius:
– A larger cutting edge radius can decrease cutting forces by distributing
the cutting load over a larger area. However, too large of a radius might
lead to poor surface finish.
• Tool Flank Wear:
– As the tool wears, the cutting forces may increase due to a reduction in
sharpness and an increased contact area. Excessive wear can result in
higher temperatures and cutting forces.
• Tool Material and Coating:
– The choice of tool material and coatings can influence cutting forces.
Harder materials and coatings can reduce wear and friction, leading to
lower cutting forces.
• Tool Helix Angle (for drills and end mills):
– The helix angle can impact cutting forces, especially in rotary cutting
tools. Higher helix angles can reduce axial forces but may increase radial
forces.
• Chip Breaker Design:
– Chip breakers are designed to control the formation and evacuation of
chips. An effective chip breaker design can help in reducing cutting forces
and improving chip flow.
• Tool Inclination Angle:
– The inclination angle affects the distribution of cutting forces along the
tool. Appropriate inclination angles can optimize cutting forces and chip
formation.
• It's important to note that these effects are interconnected, and the overall
impact on cutting forces depends on the specific machining application and
conditions. Machinists often need to consider a combination of tool
geometries to achieve the desired balance between cutting forces, tool life,
and surface finish
Analysis and estimation of Forces in
Oblique cutting
Zm
Zn

Yn PX Pm

Ym
PY
Pl
(Xn) Xm
R

Pn

PZ
Zm Yn YO

Zn

Ph Pn Ym
λ Yo
Pz
Pl
Xn
Px
Xm
φ
Ph φ
Pm
𝝅𝑪
Py

𝝅𝑹
General Principle of Measurement
 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TOOL FORCE
DYNAMOMETERS (Trasducers)
• Measurement of elastic deflection of a
member subjected to the cutting forces
• Measurement of elastic deformation, that is
strain induced by the forces
• Measurement of pressure developed by the
force
Measuring deflection caused by the cutting
force(s)
The deflection, δ, can be measured
• mechanically by dial gauge
(mechanical transducer)
• electrically by using several
transducers like; ⎯
potentiometer; linear or circular
⎯ capacitive pickup ⎯ inductive
pickup ⎯ LVDT.
• opto-electronically by photocell
where the length of the slit
through which light passes to
the photocell changes
proportionally with the tool –
deflection
Calibration of a Transducer
Deflection measurement using electrical
transducers
 Measuring cutting force by monitoring elastic
strain caused by the force.
• Increasing deflection, δ
enhances sensitivity of the
dynamometer but may affect
machining accuracy where
large value of δ is restricted,
the cutting forces are suitably
measured by using the change
in strain caused by the force
• The strain, ε induced by the
force changes the electrical
resistance, R, of the strain
gauges which are firmly pasted
on the surface of the tool-
holding beam as
 Measuring cutting forces by pressure
caused by the force
This type of transducer
functions in two ways :
• the force creates hydraulic
pressure (through a diaphragm
or piston) which is monitored
directly by pressure gauge
• the force causes pressure on
a piezoelectric crystal and
produces an emf proportional
to the force or pressure
Turning dynamometers principle and working
• Turning dynamometers may be strain gauge or piezoelectric type and
may be of one, two or three dimensions capable to monitor all of PX,
PY and PZ
• For ease of manufacture and low cost, strain gauge type turning
dynamometers are widely used and preferably of 2 – D (dimension) for
simpler construction, lower cost and ability to provide almost all the
desired force values.