Descent with Modification

The Origin of Species

◦ Focused biologists’ attention on the great diversity of organisms

Figure 22.1
Darwin made two major points in his book

◦ He presented evidence that the many species

of organisms presently inhabiting the Earth
are descendants of ancestral species
◦ He proposed a mechanism for the
evolutionary process, natural selection
Concept 22.1: The Darwinian revolution challenged
traditional views of a young Earth inhabited by
unchanging species

In order to understand why Darwin’s ideas were

revolutionary
◦ We need to examine his views in the context of other
Western ideas about Earth and its life
 Linnaeus (classification)
Hutton (gradual geologic change)
Lamarck (species can change)

Malthus (population limits)

Cuvier (fossils, extinction)
Lyell (modern geology)
The historical context of Darwin’s life and
Darwinideas
(evolution, nutural selection)
Mendel (inheritance)

Wallace (evolution, natural selection)

American Revolution French Revolution U.S. Civil War

1750 1800 1850 1900

1795 Hutton proposes his theory of gradualism.
1798 Malthus publishes “Essay on the Principle of Population.”
1809 Lamarck publishes his theory of evolution.
1830 Lyell publishes Principles of Geology.

1831–1836 Darwin travels around the world on HMS Beagle.

1837 Darwin begins his notebooks on the origin of species.
1844 Darwin writes his essay on the origin of species.
1858 Wallace sends his theory to Darwin.

1859 The Origin of Species is published.

1865 Mendel publishes inheritance papers.

Figure 22.2
The Scale of Nature and
Classification of Species
The Greek philosopher Aristotle
◦ Viewed species as fixed and unchanging
The Old Testament of the Bible
◦ Holds that species were individually designed by God and
therefore perfect
Carolus Linnaeus
◦ Interpreted organismal adaptations as evidence that the
Creator had designed each species for a specific purpose
◦ Was a founder of taxonomy, classifying life’s diversity “for
the greater glory of God”
Fossils, Cuvier, and Catastrophism

The study of fossils

◦ Helped to lay the groundwork for Darwin’s ideas

Fossils are remains or traces of organisms from the past

◦ Usually found in sedimentary rock, which appears in layers or strata

Figure 22.3
Paleontology, the study of fossils
◦ Was largely developed by French scientist Georges
Cuvier

Cuvier opposed the idea of gradual evolutionary change

◦ And instead advocated catastrophism, speculating that
each boundary between strata represents a catastrophe
 Theories of Gradualism
Gradualism
◦ Is the idea that profound change can take place through the cumulative effect of
slow but continuous processes
Geologists Hutton and Lyell
◦ Perceived that changes in Earth’s surface can result from
slow continuous actions still operating today
◦ Exerted a strong influence on Darwin’s thinking
◦ Lyell – uniformitarianism – same geologic processes are
operating today as in the past and at same rate
Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution
Lamarck hypothesized that species evolve
◦ Through use and disuse and the inheritance of acquired
traits
◦ But the mechanisms he proposed are unsupported by
evidence

Figure 22.4
Concept 22.2: In The Origin of Species, Darwin
proposed that species change through natural
selection

As the 19th century dawned

◦ It was generally believed that species had remained
unchanged since their creation, but a major change
would challenge this thinking
 Darwin’s interest in the geographic distribution of species
◦ Was kindled by the Beagle’s stop at the Galápagos
Islands near the equator west of South America

England
EUROPE
NORTH
AMERICA
PACIFIC ATLANTIC
OCEAN OCEAN

Galápagos AFRICA HMS Beagle in port

Islands

SOUTH
Darwin in 1840, AMERICA
after his return
AUSTRALIA
Cape of
Andes

Good Hope

Tasmania
Cape Horn New
Tierra del Fuego Zealand

Figure 22.5
Darwin’s Focus on Adaptation
As Darwin reassessed all that he had observed during the voyage of the
Beagle
◦ He began to perceive adaptation to the environment and the origin of new
species as closely related processes
From studies made years after Darwin’s voyage
◦ Biologists have concluded that this is indeed what happened
to the Galápagos finches

(a) Cactus eater. The long, (c) Seed eater. The large ground
sharp beak of the cactus finch (Geospiza magnirostris)
ground finch (Geospiza has a large beak adapted for
scandens) helps it tear cracking seeds that fall from
and eat cactus flowers plants to the ground.
and pulp.

Figure 22.6a–c (b) Insect eater. The green warbler

finch (Certhidea olivacea) uses its
narrow, pointed beak to grasp insects.
Summary of Natural Selection
Natural selection is differential success in reproduction
◦ That results from the interaction between individuals that vary
in heritable traits and their environment
If an environment changes over time
◦ Natural selection may result in adaptation to these new
conditions
Natural selection can produce an increase over time
◦ In the adaptation of organisms to their environment

(a) A flower mantis

in Malaysia

(b) A stick mantis

in Africa

Figure 22.11
In 1844, Darwin wrote a long essay on the origin of species and
natural selection
◦ But he was reluctant to introduce his theory publicly,
anticipating the uproar it would cause
In June 1858 Darwin received a manuscript from Alfred Russell
Wallace
◦ Who had developed a theory of natural selection similar to
Darwin’s
Darwin quickly finished The Origin of Species
◦ And published it the next year
Descent with Modification
The phrase descent with modification
◦ Summarized Darwin’s perception of the unity of life
◦ States that all organisms are related through descent from
an ancestor that lived in the remote past
In the Darwinian view, the history of life is like a tree
◦ With multiple branchings from a common trunk to the tips
of the youngest twigs that represent the diversity of living
organisms

Sirenia
Elephas Loxodonta Loxodonta
Hyracoidea (Manatees
maximus africana cyclotis
(Hyraxes) and relatives)
(Asia) (Africa) (Africa)
Years ago

Mammuthus
Stegodon
Mammut
Deinotherium

Platybelodon
Millions of years ago

Barytherium
Moeritherium

Figure 22.7
Natural Selection and
Adaptation
Evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr
◦ Has dissected the logic of Darwin’s theory into
three inferences based on five observations
Observation #1: For any species, population sizes would
increase exponentially
◦ If all individuals that are born reproduced successfully

Figure 22.8
Observation #2: Nonetheless, populations tend to be stable in
size
◦ Except for seasonal fluctuations
Observation #3: Resources are limited

Inference #1: Production of more individuals than the

environment can support
◦ Leads to a struggle for existence among individuals of a
population, with only a fraction of their offspring surviving
Observation #4: Members of a population vary extensively in their
characteristics
◦ No two individuals are exactly alike

Figure 22.9
Observation #5: Much of this variation is heritable

Inference #2: Survival depends in part on inherited

traits
◦ Individuals whose inherited traits give them a high
probability of surviving and reproducing are likely to
leave more offspring than other individuals
Inference #3: This unequal ability of individuals to
survive and reproduce
◦ Will lead to a gradual change in a population, with
favorable characteristics accumulating over
generations
Differential Predation in Guppy
Populations
Researchers have observed natural selection
◦ Leading to adaptive evolution in guppy populations

EXPERIMENT Reznick and Endler transplanted guppies from pike-cichlid pools to killifish pools
and measured the average age and size of guppies at maturity over an 11-year period (30 to
60 generations). Pools with killifish,
but not guppies prior
to transplant
Experimental
transplant of
Predator: Killifish; preys guppies
mainly on small guppies
Guppies:
Larger at
sexual maturity
than those in
“pike-cichlid pools”

Predator: Pike-cichlid; preys mainly on large guppies

Guppies: Smaller at sexual maturity than
those in “killifish pools”

Figure 22.12
 RESULTS After 11 years, the average size and age at maturity of guppies in the transplanted
populations increased compared to those of guppies in control populations.
Weight of guppies
at maturity (mg)

at maturity (days)
185.6
85.7 92.3 Control Population: Guppies

Age of guppies
161.5
from pools with pike-cichlids
58.2 as predators
48.5
67.5 76.1
Experimental Population:
Guppies transplanted to
Males Females Males Females pools with killifish as
predators

CONCLUSION Reznick and Endler concluded that the change in predator resulted in different variations
in the population (larger size and faster maturation) being favored. Over a relatively short time, this altered
selection pressure resulted in an observable evolutionary change in the experimental population.
The Evolution of Drug-Resistance
In humans, the use of drugs
◦ Selects for pathogens that through chance mutations are resistant to the
drugs’ effects
Natural selection is a cause of adaptive evolution
Drugs do not create resistant pathogens, they select for resistant
individuals already in the population
The Fossil Record
The succession of forms observed in the fossil record
◦ Is consistent with other inferences about the major branches of descent in
the tree of life
 Anatomical Homologies
Homologous structures between organisms
◦ Are anatomical resemblances that represent variations on a structural theme
that was present in a common ancestor

Human Cat Whale Bat

Figure 22.14
 Comparative embryology
◦ Reveals additional anatomical homologies not visible in adult
organisms

Pharyngeal
pouches

Post-anal
tail

Chick embryo Human embryo

Figure 22.15
Vestigial organs
◦ Are some of the most intriguing homologous structures
◦ Are remnants of structures that served important functions in the
organism’s ancestors
Analogous structures
◦ Similar solution to similar problems; but doesn’t show relatedness
 Molecular Homologies
Biologists also observe homologies among organisms at the
molecular level
◦ Such as genes that are shared among organisms inherited
from a common ancestor
Anatomical resemblances among species
◦ Are generally reflected in their molecules, their genes, and their gene
products

Percent of Amino Acids That Are

Identical to the Amino Acids in a
Species
Human Hemoglobin Polypeptide

Human 100%

Rhesus monkey 95%

Mouse 87%

Chicken 69%

Frog 54%

14%
Figure 22.16 Lamprey
 Homologies and the Tree of Life
The Darwinian concept of an evolutionary tree of life
◦ Can explain the homologies that researchers have observed
Biogeography
Darwin’s observations of the geographic distribution of
species, biogeography
◦ Formed an important part of his theory of evolution
Some similar mammals that have adapted to similar
environments
◦ Have evolved independently from different ancestors

NORTH
Sugar AMERICA
glider

AUSTRALIA

Flying
squirrel
Figure 22.17
Summarizing
Evolution is a change in species over time
Heritable variations exist within a population
These variations can result in a differential
reproductive success
Over generations, this can result in changes in
the genetic composition of the population