UNIT-IV

(Computer System Architecture)

-Navjot Kaur Mahi

(Assistant
Professor)
Syllabus(Unit-IV)
Introduction to Computer Organization:
Introduction to Computer and CPU (Computer Organization, Computer
Design and Computer Architecture), Stored Program Concept- Von
Neumann Architecture, Harvard Architecture, RISC and CISC
Architecture.
Register Transfer and Micro operations:
Introduction to Registers, Instruction Format, Types of Instructions-
Memory Reference Instructions, Register Reference Instructions and
Input-Output Instructions.
Common Bus System:
Introduction to Common Bus System, Types of Buses (Data Bus, Control
Bus, Address Bus), 16-bit Common Bus System--Data Movement among
registers using Bus.
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or
data. It has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data. You may
already know that you can use a computer to type documents, send
email, play games, and browse the Web.
Functions of Computer
Input: Whatever is given to a computer is called the input. The input data
is given to the computer using the input devices. The computer only takes
data in a binary form (raw format). The input devices help convert the
entered data in the binary form to be understandable by the computer. Data
can be inputted in various forms, such as letters, numbers, images, etc.
Functions of Computer
Processing: Processing is the primary function of the computer. CPU helps to process the
data according to the instructions entered into the computer system. The processing of
data is an internal process of the computer system, and the data is executed in a queue.
After the processing has been completed, the data is further transferred as the output.
The processor (CPU) is the computer's brain, and it is a microchip. The processor's speed
varies in different computers because it depends on several factors, such as the type of
CPU, memory, and motherboard.
Typically, the following operations are performed on the data during the processing:
Arithmetic Operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, differentials, square
root, etc.
Logical Operations, such as equal to, not equal to, greater than, less than, opposite, etc.
Functions of Computer
Output: Anything that comes out from the computer is called the
output. It is the human-readable data and displayed on the computer
screen (monitor). Output can be stored in the storage devices if
desired. The output devices help convert the processed data of the
CPU into the human-understandable form.
Functions of Computer
Storage: The device used to store the data of a computer system is called the
storage. Storage devices help to store digital data. They can store the data while the
computer is operating and after processing. There are volatile and non-volatile
storage options. The volatile storage can store the data as long as the power source
is connected, whereas non-volatile can store the data permanently even after the
power source is disconnected.
Characteristics of Computer
• Speed: Computers are a high-speed electronic machine. They can carry around 3-4
million instruction per second. Even advanced computers can handle trillions of
instructions per second, cutting down the time to perform any digital tasks.
• Accuracy: Computers are also known for their accurate performance. They can
complete the given jobs at almost 100% accuracy. Although errors may occur in
computers, they are usually caused by incorrect input, incorrect instructions, or bugs in
chips. All of these are human errors.
• Storage Capacity: Computers can easily store a massive size of data. Modern
computers come inbuilt with high storage features compared to older days. Additional
data can be stored on secondary devices like external hard disks, or flash memory, etc.
Due to incredible speed, data can be retrieved from storage in no time.
• Reliability: Computers are reliable and consistent; they can process the same tasks any
number of times without throwing any error. Computers don't get tired like humans, so
they are superior to perform rule-based, repetitive tasks.
• Versatility: The variety of tasks that a computer can perform are almost infinite. That
means computers can perform different tasks back to back without making errors; they
are no longer just a computing machine. For one moment, a computer can be used to
perform data entry tasks or ticket booking, and the very next moment, it can be used for
complex mathematical calculations or continuous astronomical observations, etc.
Advantages of Computer
1. High Speed
One of the reasons for the improvement in the quality of life is the personal
computer's speed. The modern computer offers great speed, helping us to do our tasks
within a matter of seconds. Let's say you want to watch a video. You'll just go to
YouTube and find the required video within seconds.
2. Accuracy
Humans make errors. Hence, while performing complex calculations, we check once
with the calculator. The fact that computers are extremely accurate makes them quite
reliable. You'll trust the information or answers that a calculator gives just due to its
accuracy.
3. Automation
A lot of tasks can be automated, saving a lot of time. For example, instead of
manually calculating some values like the mean or median of a large dataset, we just
use Excel. This saves a lot of time, ensuring 100% accuracy.
4. Storage
The storage capacity of computers is usually in Giga-Bytes (GBs) or more. We can
store videos, images, games, etc., on our computers and access them easily after
downloading them.
Advantages of Computer
5. Ease of Access
Let's say we have to search for a book in a library, and we don't know anything except the
name of the book. It would be an arduous task. But, on a computer, just type the name of
the file, and voila! This ease of access provided by our personal computer contributes
towards saving our time and efforts.
6. Multitasking
Multitasking means working on multiple tasks simultaneously. Suppose you read an article
online and you need to write down the meanings of the words that are unfamiliar. You can
search on Google, note down the meaning on a Word file, and continue reading the article.
This is one example of multitasking offered by computers.
7. Better understanding of data
A computer supports a lot of tools for data analysis and mining. Organizations make use of
the benefit of computers to support data analysis and visualization helpful for decision
making.
8. Reduced Cost for Online Ventures
Affordable computers and laptops with internet connectivity are a boon for start-ups that
function online. It lowers the cost by reducing infrastructure, inventory, and rent expenses.
All that they need is a team with laptops and internet connectivity, along with a software
license relevant to their industry.
Disadvantages of Computer
•Computers cannot work on their own. They need instructions
from humans to complete tasks. Moreover, computers follow the
given instructions blindly without thinking about the outcomes.
•Computers need a power supply to work. Without a power
supply, they are just useless.
•Working on a computer continuously for a long period can cause
several health issues.
•Wastage of computers and their parts leave a negative impact on
the environment.
•Computers are taking human jobs in many sectors. They are
replacing human work and thus increasing unemployment.
Central Processing Unit(CPU)
A Central Processing Unit is the most important component
of a computer system. A CPU is a hardware that performs
data input/output, processing and storage functions for a
computer system. A CPU can be installed into a CPU socket.
These sockets are generally located on the motherboard. CPU
can perform various data processing operations. CPU can
store data, instructions, programs, and intermediate results.
Central Processing Unit(CPU)
Different Parts of CPU
Now, the CPU consists of 3 major units, which are:
1.Memory or Storage Unit
2.Control Unit
3.ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Parts of CPU
Memory or Storage Unit
As the name suggests this unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. The
memory unit is responsible for transferring information to other units of the computer
when needed. It is also known as an internal storage unit or the main memory or the
primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM) as all these are storage devices.
Its size affects speed, power, and performance. There are two types of memory in the
computer, which are primary memory and secondary memory. Some main functions of
memory units are listed below:
•Data and instructions are stored in memory units which are required for processing.
•It also stores the intermediate results of any calculation or task when they are in
process.
•The final results of processing are stored in the memory units before these results are
released to an output device for giving the output to the user.
•All sorts of inputs and outputs are transmitted through the memory unit.
Parts of CPU
Control Unit
As the name suggests, a control unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but it
does not carry out any data processing operations. For executing already stored instructions, It
instructs the computer by using the electrical signals to instruct the computer system. It takes
instructions from the memory unit and then decodes the instructions after that it executes
those instructions. So, it controls the functioning of the computer. It’s main task is to maintain
the flow of information across the processor. Some main functions of the control unit are
listed below:
•Controlling of data and transfer of data and instructions is done by the control unit among
other parts of the computer.
•The control unit is responsible for managing all the units of the computer.
•The main task of the control unit is to obtain the instructions or data which is input from the
memory unit, interprets them, and then directs the operation of the computer according to
that.
•The control unit is responsible for communication with Input and output devices for the
transfer of data or results from memory.
•The control unit is not responsible for the processing of data or storing data.
Parts of CPU
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) is responsible for performing arithmetic and logical
functions or operations. It consists of two subsections, which are:
•Arithmetic Section
•Logic Section
Now, let us know about these subsections:
Arithmetic Section: By arithmetic operations, we mean operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division, and all these operation and functions are
performed by ALU. Also, all the complex operations are done by making repetitive
use of the mentioned operations by ALU.
Logic Section: By Logical operations, we mean operations or functions like
selecting, comparing, matching, and merging the data, and all these are performed
by ALU.
Note: CPU may contain more than one ALU and it can be used for maintaining
timers that help run the computer system.
What Does a CPU Do?
The main function of a computer processor is to execute instruction and
produce an output. CPU work are Fetch, Decode and Execute are the
fundamental functions of the computer.
•Fetch: the first CPU gets the instruction. That means binary numbers
that are passed from RAM to CPU.
•Decode: When the instruction is entered into the CPU, it needs to
decode the instructions. with the help of ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
the process of decode begins.
•Execute: After decode step the instructions are ready to execute
•Store: After execute step the instructions are ready to store in the
memory.
Types of CPU
•Single Core CPU: The oldest type of computer CPUs is single core CPU. These
CPUs were used in the 1970s. these CPUs only have a single core that preform
different operations. This means that the single core CPU can only process one
operation at a single time. single core CPU CPU is not suitable for multitasking.
•Dual-Core CPU: Dual-Core CPUs contain a single Integrated Circuit with two
cores. Each core has its cache and controller. These controllers and cache are work
as a single unit. dual core CPUs can work faster than the single-core processors.
•Quad-Core CPU: Quad-Core CPUs contain two dual-core processors present
within a single integrated circuit (IC) or chip. A quad-core processor contains a
chip with four independent cores. These cores read and execute various
instructions provided by the CPU. Quad Core CPU increases the overall speed for
programs. Without even boosting the overall clock speed it results in higher
performance.
Computer Organization
Definition:
Computer Organization refers to the way in which the various
components of a computer system are arranged and connected.
Computer Organization is the way in which a system has to structure
and It is operational units and the interconnections between them that
achieve the architectural specifications, It is the realization of the
abstract model, and It deals with How to implement the system.
•It involves the study of the internal working and structuring of a
computer system.
•This includes the design and architecture of the central processing
unit (CPU), memory, input/output devices, and how they interact
with each other.
Computer Organization
Computer organization refers to the way the various components of a computer
system are interconnected and work together to perform tasks and execute
programs. It encompasses the design and arrangement of hardware components,
including the central processing unit (CPU), memory, input/output devices, and
control units, to ensure efficient and effective operation of the computer.
Computer organization deals with the physical components of a computer. So, it
refers to the operational unit and the interconnection between them that achieves
the architectural specifications. It tells us about the different functional blocks of
the system. It is basically the realization of architecture and deals with functional
structure and various structural relationships.
Computer organization includes the physical connection component, like circuits
with adder subtractor. If we talk about CPU organization, its three types are:
•Single Accumulator Organization
•General Register Organization
•Stack Organization
Computer Architecture
Computer architecture is a specification describing how computer software and
hardware connect and interact to create a computer network.
It determines the structure and function of computers and the technologies it is compatible
with – from the central processing unit (CPU) to memory, input/output devices, and
storage units.
Understanding the meaning of computer architecture is crucial for both computer
scientists and enthusiasts, as it forms the basis for designing innovative and efficient
computing solutions.
These design decisions can have a huge influence on factors like a computer’s processing
speed, energy efficiency, and overall system performance.
Computer scientists must build a computer with the same principles in mind as building
the foundations of physical structure. The three main pillars they must consider are:
•System design - This is what makes up the structure of a computer, including all
hardware parts, such as CPU, data processors, multiprocessors, memory controllers, and
direct memory access.
•Instruction set architecture (ISA) - This is any software that makes a computer run,
including the CPU’s functions and capabilities, programming languages, data formats,
processor register types, and instructions used by programmers.
•Microarchitecture - This defines the data processing and storage element or data paths.
Computer Design
Computer Design is the structure in which components relate to each other. The designer deals with a particular level
of system at a time and there are different types of issues at different levels. At each level, the designer is concerned
with the structure and function. The structure is the skeleton of the various components related to each other for
communication. The function is the activities involved in the system.
Following are the issues in computer design:
1.Assumption of infinite speed:
It can’t be assumed the infinite speed of the computer as it is not practical to assume the infinite speed. It creates
problems in designers’ thinking as well.
2.Assumption of infinite Memory:
Like the speed of the computer, memory also can’t be assumed infinite. Storage is always finite and this is an issue in
computer design.
3.Speed mismatch between memory and processor:
Sometimes it is possible that the speed of memory and processor does not match. It may be memory speed is faster or
processor speed is faster. A mismatch between memory and processor leads to create problems in designing.
4.Handling of bugs and errors:
Handling bugs and errors are huge responsibility of any computer designer. Bugs and errors lead to the failure of the
computer system. Sometimes these errors may be more dangerous.
5.Multiple processors:
Designing a computer system with multiple processors leads to the huge task of management and programming. It is a
big issue in computer design.
6.Multiple threads:
A computer system with multiple threads is always a threat to the designer. A computer with several threads should be
able to multi-tasking and multi-processing.
7.Shared memory:
If there are several processes to be executed at a time then all the processes share the same memory space. It should
Computer Design
8. Disk access:
Disk management is the key to computer design. There are several issues with disk access. It may
be possible that the system does not support multiple disk access.
9. Better performance:
It is always an issue. A designer always tries to simplify the system for better performance in
reducing power and less cost.

10. Performance: One of the biggest challenges in computer design is optimizing performance.
Designers need to balance factors such as processing power, memory capacity, and input/output
speed to create a system that is fast and efficient.
11. Power consumption: As computing devices become more ubiquitous, power consumption has
become a critical design consideration. Designers need to create systems that are energy-efficient
to reduce the impact on the environment and improve battery life.
12. Security: With the growing amount of sensitive data being stored and processed on computing
devices, security is a major issue. Designers need to build in strong encryption and authentication
measures to prevent unauthorized access and data breaches.
13. Compatibility: As computing devices become more diverse, ensuring compatibility across
platforms and devices is a key challenge. Designers need to create systems that can run
seamlessly on a variety of operating systems and hardware configurations.
14. User experience: The user experience is a critical consideration in computer design. Designers
need to create intuitive interfaces and experiences that are easy to use and navigate.
15. Reliability: Computing devices are expected to work reliably and consistently. Designers need to
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