lecture 3- System Models and

Diagrams
this lecture focus on Modeling in systems
thinking

What and why of modeling

Types of modeling in systems study

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a model is a tool for thinking

How ?
Illustrate with example

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a model is an abstraction, a representation of
part of the real world.
 Model is an idealization or abstraction of the
actual process (here, IS/IT).
An abstraction is often viewed as the process
of stripping an idea or a system of its concrete
or physical features.

hence modeling is relevant abstraction and

representation of reality as well as mastering
complexity.

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• a model represents something that exists or is
planned in the real world and that in someway
is too complex or large for us to understand it
as it stands.
– A model is, in someway, simplified, or
reduced in size, scope or scale.
– It helps to understand problem situation/ a
system better.
– And it is the best way to study reality.

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a model is
• a representation of reality intended for some
purpose

• a representation of reality intended to be of

use to someone charged with managing or
understanding that reality

• a representation of reality intended to be of

use to someone in understanding, changing,
managing and controlling that reality

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• a representation of part of reality as seen by
the people who wish to use it to understand, to
change, to manage and to control that part of
reality
• an external and explicit representation of
part of reality as seen by the people who wish
to use it to understand, to change, to manage
and to control that part of reality

• a model is a tool for thinking

– Advocated mainly by soft system thinkers.
– Emphasis is on understanding than representation

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models should be:
• simple but complete, not trivial or irrelevant
– simple models are easier to understand, to evaluate,
to work with and to communicate
– they can be explained to problem users and owners;
this helps to convince them to use models as tools
for thinking
– even if users cannot comprehend its inner working
properly, a model should be easy to manipulate
and it should be tested by owners and users

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• start small, then add and refine
– start with a small model even if it is not
sufficiently realistic
– make sure you immediately test it; if data is not
yet ready, use approximate data; this will show if
the model makes sense; see if it helps you to
understand the problem situation
– as you discover the shortcomings of your model,
refine it:
• either by enriching, ie. adding new features,
• or by reformulating, ie. replacing with a different,
new model

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• Thus, a model is a simplified representation of
a complex reality,
– usually for the purpose of understanding that reality,
and having all the features of that reality necessary
for the current task or problem.

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A model my take different form
A model may be conceptual like a mathematical
model, which is full of equations, and are used to
study the properties of the process, draw
conclusions, and make predictions.
Statistical models on the other hand represent
repetitive processes, make predictions about
frequencies of interesting events, and use
probability as the fundamental tool.
Engineering models - design representation ….
How about in SE/CS/IS(D)? How logically can you
classify (mention ) models you were creating in system
development efforts or in putting in place network
systems

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• Common modeling - in SE/ISD/IS/IT in
general
– Conceptual modeling
• End-user oriented
• More problematic from systems thinking
perspective
– Logical modeling
• System oriented
– Physical modeling
• Implementation oriented

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• Principles of modeling
– Best models are connected to reality
– No single model is sufficient
– Every model may be expressed at different
precision
• Illustrate with Examples?

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Demonstrate with Examples in SE/ISD context?

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Examples of Purpose of Modeling

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 Modeling tools/ Diagrams
• Basic systems thinking tools (with a main intention of
understanding ) can be classified as
– Brainstorming tools
• the Double Q Diagram, influence diagrams, flow
charts, spray diagrams, rich pictures and mind
maps, Human activity diagrams (conceptual
models)
– Dynamic thinking tools
• Behavior Over Time, Causal Loops, Systems
Archetypes

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brainstorming Tools
 the Double Q Diagram
Qualitative and Quantitative

Hard
Factors
(Quantitative)

The Issue
Soft
Factors
(Qualitative)

Visual Map of the Key Factor Related to an Issue

influence diagrams

control i/p, output

parameters,
constraints, etc decision rules, etc

influence
A B
system
variables:
rates, levels
etc
rate = flow (a process element)
level = stock (a structural element)

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stocks and flows or
levels and rates

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flow charts
• flow charts are
used to show
logical or
temporal flows
such as:
– material flows
– information
flows
– decision flows
etc

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Spray diagrams
Spray diagrams are useful to map detailed cause-and-effect
relationships

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 Exercise
•Use spray diagram to understand a
failed/challenged software development
– Use at least 3 main causes
– Use at least level 1 causes

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mind maps and rich pictures
these are useful as a first step in setting down and
representing our perception of the problem situation
where:
– all aspects of a problem situation are mapped on
a free-style diagram with or without pictures
– including as much or as little detail as necessary
– independently of any particular W (ie. world
view) but as a joint product of conflicting views
of the situation
– without trying to identify any systems as yet
– redrawn as many times as needed in the course of
the project

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Rich pictures
– A drawing of a situation that illustrates the main
elements and relationships that need to be
considered in trying to intervene to create some
improvement.
– Pictures, text, symbols and icons should all
be used to graphically illustrate the
situation.
– It is called a rich picture because it
illustrates the richness and complexity of a
situation

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mind maps

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Dynamic Thinking Tools
Dynamic relationships between variables
Behavior Over Time
A Behavior over Time Graph (or BoTG) is a simple
line graph that shows a pattern of change over
time – it shows how something increases and
decreases as time passes.
This foundational Systems Tool is instrumental in
modeling and understanding many systems.
A

Performance
Level

B
Time
Causal Loop
A causal loop diagram is a "snapshot of all relationships
that matter." It is a visual representation of key variables
(i.e., factors, issues, processes) and how they are
interconnected.

These diagrams show variables represented as texts and

causal relationships between them represented as arrows

B
R= Reinforcing
R B C
B= Balancing

A
 Causal Loop

R= Reinforcing
B= Balancing

Stress Alcohol Use

B1

R2
Productivity Health
System Archetype
Aid in the Recognition of common system behavior

• Drifting Goals
• Escalation
• Fixes that Fail
• Growth and Underinvestment
• Limits to Success
• Shifting the Burden
• Success to be Successful
• Tragedy of the Commons
 Cont…

• System archetypes are common and usually

recurring patterns of behavior in organizations.
– These patterns almost always result in negative
consequences.
• System archetypes were first studied in the
1960s and 1970s by Jay Forrester,
Dennis Meadows, Donella Meadows, and others
in the nascent field of systems thinking.

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 review questions
• How is modeling important in systems thinking?
• Explain the difference between primary
purpose of modeling in traditional approach and
systems thinking approach with the a soft
perspective?
• Mention examples from the two categories of
modeling tools in system thinking?

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