CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

ARTERIES

• Arteries carry blood from the heart to the body.

• All arteries carry oxygenated blood at high pressure from left ventricle to body tissues.
• Except the pulmonary artery which carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs
• The arteries have strong, thick, elastic walls which can expand and recoil as the high pressure blood
pulses through.
• The wall of the artery contains large amounts of elastic fibers. These allow the wall to stretch as pulses of
blood surge through at high pressure.
• The inner lining of the arteries called endothelium also plays a crucial role in regulating blood flow and
preventing and buildup of plaque and blockages that can lead to conditions like etherosclerosis
 STRUCTURE OF THE ARTERIES

The lumen of the

capillaries is very
small in size This
facilitates better
exchange of
oxygen, nutrients
and other toxins to
and from the
blood and tissues.
 TYPES OF ARTERIES

• Aorta artery is the largest artery in the body and it carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of
the body. It is essential for supplying blood to all organs and tissues in the body
• Pulmonary artery these are the blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood rom the heart to the lungs
for oxygenated. They are essential for the respiratory system to function properly.
• Gastric artery these are arteries that supply blood to the stomach which is important for digestion.
• Hepatic artery these arteries supply blood to the liver which is essential for its metabolic functions.
• Coronary artery these are the blood vessels that supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle . They are
essential for the proper functioning of the heart
 VEINS

• Veins are blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart except pulmonary vein.
• They are thinner than arteries and have valves that help to keep blood moving in the right
direction
• The largest vein in the body is the inferior vena cava which runs along the spine and carries the
blood from the lower half of the body back to the heart.
• Other major veins include the superior vena cava, pulmonary veins and the aorta
• There are also smaller veins throughout the body that carries the blood from the organ and the
muscles back to the heart.
• Veins only have 2 layers, the

STRUCTURE OF THE VEIN

intima media and adventitia
• The intima is the inner layer
of the vein and its made up
of thin layer of endothelial
cells
• The adventitia is the outer
layer of the vein and its
made up of connective
tissues and elastic fibers
• In-between these two layers
is a space called the lumen
which is where blood flows
through the veins
 TYPES OF VEINS

• Pulmonary veins : carry oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the heart. They do not have
valves. Pulmonary veins begin at the alveoli, the tiny air sacs in the lungs where gaseous exchange
occurs. The pulmonary vein carry 75% of the blood that enters the left atrium of the heart. They
can be affected by conditions like pulmonary hypertension and pulmonary embolism.
• Systematic veins : return deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body to the right atrium of the
heart.
• Superficial veins : allocated close to the surface of the skin and are not located near a
corresponding artery.
• The inferior vena cava is a large vein that runs along the spine in the lower half of the body. It
collects blood from the legs, pelvis, and abdomen, and then carries it back to the heart. It's an
important part of the circulatory system, and if it's blocked or damaged, it can cause serious
health problems. The inferior vena cava can be affected by a number of conditions, including
deep vein thrombosis, aortic aneurysm, and some cancers. It can also be damaged during surgery.
 TIPS FOR HEALTHY VEINS

1. Exercise regularly.
2. Maintain a healthy weight.
3. Avoid crossing your legs.
4. Wear compression stockings
 CAPILLARIES

• Capillaries are small finer blood vessels that connect the arterioles and the venules.
• Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in our body, with just enough space for red blood cells to
squeeze through
• The walls are one cell thick, and have gap through which plasma can leak out to deliver nutrients,
hormones and other requirements to body cells, and take away their waste products.
• Small size and thin walls reduce diffusion distance, enabling exchange to take place rapidly
between the blood and the body cells.
STRUCTURE OF THE CAPILLARY
 FUNCTIONS OF
• Capillaries connect the arterioles to the
CAPILLARIES
venules.
• Capillaries facilitate the exchange of gases and
nutrients between the bloodstream and the
tissues/cells.
• They form the blood-brain barrier, transferring
selected and required components to the brain
• They intake the wastes from cells and transport
them to the venous system for elimination.
• Distribution of hormones to the respective
targeted location.
TYPES OF CAPILLARIES
 FUNCTIONS OF THE HEART

•THE HEART PUMPS BLOOD THROUGHOUT THE BODY: THE HEART HAS FOUR CHAMBERS
WHICH ARE RIGHT AND LEFT VENTRICLE,RIGHT AND LEFT ATRIUM.THE RIGHT ATRIUM
RECEIVES DEOXYGENATED BLOOD FROM THE BODY AND PUMPS IT TO THE RIGHT
VENTRICLE.THE RIGHT VENTRICLE THEN PUMPS THE BLOOD TO THE LUNGS WHERE IT
PICKS UP OXYGEN.THEN,THE OXYGENATED BLOOD RETURNS TO THE LEFT ATRIUM,WHICH
PUMPS IT TO THE LEFT VENTRICLE.FINALLY,THE LEFT VENTRICLE PUMPS THE OXYGENATED
BLOOD OUT TO THE REST OF THE BODY.
•THE HEART REGULATES BLOOD PRESSURE: THE HEART CONTROLS BLOOD PRESSURE BY
ADJUSTING ITS RATE AND FORCE OF CONTRACTION.IT DOES THIS BY SENSING THE BODYS
NEEDS AND RESPONDING ACCORDINGLY.FOR EXAMPLE IF THE BODY IS UNDER STRESS THE
WILL BEAT FASTER AND STRONGER TO GET MORE BLOOD AND OXYGEN TO THE TISSUES
THAT NEED IT.ON THE OTHER HAND,IF THE BODY IS AT REST THE HEART WILL SLOW DOWN
TO CONSERVE ENERGY.THE HEART REGULATES BLOOD PRESSURE THROUGH TWO MAIN
MECHANISMS WHICH ARE THE FRANK-STARLING LAW OF THE HEART AND THE
BARORECEPTER REFLEX.THE FRANK-STARLING LAW OF THE HEART STATES THAT THE
FORCE OF CONTRACTION OF THE HEART IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE LENGTH OF THE MUSCLE
FIBERS.IN OTHER WORDS THE MORE THE HEART IS STRETCHED,THE HARDER IT
CONTRACTS.THE BARORECEPTER REFLEX.ON THE OTHER HAND IS A NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
LOOP THAT WORKS TO MANTAIN A CONSTANT BLOOD PRESSURE.
•THE HEART FILTERS AND REMOVES WASTE PRODUCTS FROM THE BLOOD: THE HEART HAS A
SPECIAL STRUCTURE CALLED THE ENDOCARDIUM,WHICH LINES THE INSIDE OF THE HEART.THE
ENDOCARDIUM CONTAINS TINY BLOOD VESSELS CALLED CAPILLARIES,WHICH ACT AS FILTERS.THESE
CAPILLARIES REMOVE WASTE PRODUCTS AND TOXINS FROM THE BLOOD AND CARRY THEM TO THE
LUNGS,WHERE THEY ARE EXHALED.THE HEART ALSO HAS A LYMPHATIC VESSELS THAT HELP TO
DRAIN EXCESS FLUID FROM THE BODY.EXAMPLES OF THE WASTE PRODUCTS INCLUDE CARBON
DIOXIDE WHICH IS A BYPRODUCT OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION,UREA WHICH IS A BYPRODUCT OF
PROTEIN METABOLISM AND LACTIC ACID WHICH IS A BYPRODUCT OF MUSCLE ACTIVITY.ALL OF
THESE WASTE PRODUCTS ARE REMOVED THRU THE LUNGS,KIDNEYS AND SWEAT GLANDS.
•THE HEART HELPS TO CONTROL BODY TEMPERATURE: THE HEART HELPS TO REGULATE
BODY TEMPERATURE BY CIRCULATING BLOOD TO THE SKIN.WHEN THE BODY IS TOO
HOT ,THE HEART WILL PUMP MORE BLOOD TO THE SKIN,WHERE IT CAN RELEASE
HEAT.WHEN THE BODY IS TOO COLD,THE HEART WILL PUMP LESS BLOOD TO THE SKIN TO
CONSERVE HEART.THE ALSO HAS A BUILT-IN THERMOSTAT THAT HELPS TO MANTAIN A
STABLE BODY TEMPERATURE.FOR INSTANCE IF A BODY IS EXPOSED TO A COLD
ENVIRONMENT,IN RESPONSE THE BRAIN WILL ACTIVATE THE SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM WHICH CAUSES THE HEART TO BEAT FASTER,WHICH EN INCREASES HEAT LOSS
THRU THE SKIN WHICH THEN HELPS TO COOL DOWN THE BODY.
•THE FRANK-STARLING MECHANISM: THE FRANK-STARLING MECHANISMS IS A FEEDBACK
SYSTEM THAT HELPS THE HEART TO ADJUST ITS PUMPING RATE BASED ON THE AMOUNT OF
BLOOD THAT NEEDS TO BE PUMPED.WHEN THE HEART RECEIVES MORE BLOOD,IT WILL
CONTRACT MORE STRONGLY TO PUMP MORE BLOOD.AND WHEN THE HEART RECEIVES
LESS,IT WILL CONTRACT MORE GENTLY TO CONSEREVE ENERGY.THIS MECHANISM HELPS
TO KEEP THE HEART EFFICIENT AND PREVENTS IT FROM OVERWORKING.
 CHAMBERS OF THE HEART

• The heart has four chambers ,two on the right side of the heart {right atrium and right
ventricle},and two are on the left side of the heart {left atrium and left ventricle}.
• The atria is the upper chamber of the heart and the ventricles are the lower chambers.
• The right atrium and the right ventricle are on the right side of the heart and they pump
deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
• The left atrium and the left ventricle are on the left side of the heart and they pump oxygenated
blood to the body.
 FUNCTIONS OF THE FOUR CHAMBERS

• The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the right ventricle.
• The right ventricle then pumps the deoxygenated blood to the pulmonary artery which carries it
to the lungs.
• The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the left ventricle.
• The left ventricle then pumps the oxygenated blood to the aorta{systematic trunk as it carries
blood to the entire systematic circulation} which carries it to the rest of the body.
 STRUCTURE OF THE CHAMBERS OF THE HEART
RIGHT AND LEFT ATRIUM

• Each chamber has a different structure that is suited to its function that is size ,shape and thickness.
• The right atrium is thin walled and the left atrium is thicker because:

- The left atrium receives blood from the pulmonary veins, which carry blood from the lungs that is higher in pressure
- The right atrium receives blood from the vena cava, which carries blood from the body that is lower in pressure.
• The left atrium is larger than the right atrium in size because:

-the left atrium is larger because it receives more blood than the right atrium.
-the left atrium receives blood from the lungs as well as from the heart itself, while the right atrium only receives blood from the heart.
• The right atrium is shaped like a triangle /funnel shaped

- The triangular shape of the right atrium helps to direct blood towards the tricuspid valve.
• The left atrium is more rounded in shape /oval shaped with a more defined apex at the top.

-the rounded shape of the left atrium helps to prevent blood from stagnating or pooling in the atrium.
 RIGHT AND LEFT VENTRICLE STRUCTURE
• The right ventricle is C-shaped, or crescent-shaped.

- helps the right ventricle to efficiently pump blood into the pulmonary artery
• The left ventricle is more ellipsoid, or oval-shaped.

- shape allows the left ventricle to pump blood with more force into the aorta, the main artery that carries blood to
the rest of the body
• The left ventricle is larger and thicker than the right ventricle because it has to work harder to pump blood
throughout the body.
-The right ventricle only has to pump blood to the lungs, so it does not need to be as large or as powerful
• The right ventricle is thicker than the left ventricle.

-The difference in thickness is due to the different pressures that the right and left ventricles have to pump against.
- The left ventricle has to pump against a higher pressure, so it needs to be thicker in order to withstand that
pressure.
-The right ventricle has a lower pressure to pump against, so it does not need to be as thick.
 VALVES OF THE HEART

• The heart has 4 valves that regulate the flow of flood through the heart
• The bicuspid valve
• Tricuspid valve
• Pulmonary valve
• Aortic valve
• The bicuspid and tricuspid valves are located between the atria and ventricles
• The pulmonary and aortic valves are located between the ventricles and the blood vessels
• The valves open and close in a coordinated way to ensure that blood flows in the correct direction in the
heart
 FUNCTIONS OF THE VALVES OF THE HEART IN
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
• All four valves of the heart have different functions in the circulatory system
• The bicuspid and tricuspid valves allow blood to flow from the atria to the ventricles
• The pulmonary and aortic valves allow blood to flow from the ventricles to the pulmonary artery and
aorta, respectively
• The bicuspid and tricuspid valves prevent blood from flowing backwards into the atria
• The pulmonary and aortic valves prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricles.

• Together these values maintain the proper flow of blood through the heart and help to ensure that the
circulatory system functions properly
TH EH EA R T:B LO O D FLO W IN TH EH EA R T
•The heart's circulation of blood is a complex process that involves the heart, blood vessels, and
blood itself. It begins when deoxygenated blood from the body enters the right atrium of the heart
through the superior and inferior vena cava. The right atrium pumps the blood into the right
ventricle, which then pumps it through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. In the lungs, oxygen is
absorbed into the blood, and carbon dioxide is removed.
•The oxygenated blood then travels back to the heart through the pulmonary veins.The left ventricle
pumps the oxygenated blood through the aorta, where it is carried to the rest of the body. The
muscles of the heart then relax and fill with blood again, beginning the process anew. This
circulation of blood is essential for delivering oxygen and nutrients to the cells of the body and
removing waste products, including carbon dioxide. The heart is a vital organ that is constantly
working to keep us alive and healthy.
 RELAXATION AND CONTRACTION OF MUSCLES

• As the heart beats, it goes through a cycle of contraction and relaxation that is coordinated by the
sinoatrial (SA) node, which acts as the body's natural pacemaker. During contraction, the ventricles pump
blood out of the heart, and the atria fill with blood. The valves in the heart, including the tricuspid valve,
bicuspid valve, and aortic valve, open and close to direct the flow of blood. When the ventricles relax, the
atria contract, pushing blood into the ventricles. The valves close, preventing blood from flowing
backwards.
• As the heart beats, it goes through a cycle of contraction and relaxation that is coordinated by the
sinoatrial (SA) node, which acts as the body's natural pacemaker. During contraction, the ventricles pump
blood out of the heart, and the atria fill with blood. The valves in the heart, including the tricuspid valve,
bicuspid valve, and aortic valve, open and close to direct the flow of blood. When the ventricles relax, the
atria contract, pushing blood into the ventricles. The valves close, preventing blood from flowing
backwards.
•
 HOW THE HEART IS ADAPTED TO IT'S FUNCTION ?

•It has a double-layered wall of muscle tissue, called the myocardium, that helps to
generate and conduct the electrical impulses that cause the heart to contract.
•The heart also has a system of valves that control the flow of blood and prevent it
from flowing backwards.
•Finally, the heart has a rich supply of capillaries that carry oxygenated blood to
the heart muscle itself. All of these adaptations work together to allow the heart to
function effectively.
 Blood pressure

• Blood pressure is a measurement of the force of the blood pushing against the walls of the
arteries. It's typically expressed as two numbers: the systolic pressure (the top number) and the
diastolic pressure (the bottom number). The systolic pressure is the force of the blood when the
heart is beating, while the diastolic pressure is the force of the blood when the heart is at rest.
Blood pressure is usually measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg). Normal blood pressure
is considered to be below 120/80 mm Hg, while high blood pressure is considered
to be 140/90 mm Hg
 CAUSES

• There are many factors that can contribute to high blood pressure, including lifestyle choices,
medical conditions, and medications.
• Some common risk factors for high blood pressure include: being overweight or obese, lack of
physical activity, excessive alcohol consumption, smoking, stress, a diet high in sodium, and
certain medical conditions such as diabetes and sleep apnea.
• Additionally, certain medications, such as birth control pills and steroids, can also raise blood
pressure.
• Even though many of these risk factors are beyond our control, there are still things we can do
to lower our blood pressure and prevent the development of hypertension.
 SYMPTOMS

• There are a number of symptoms that can be associated with high blood pressure (hypertension).
• These can include headaches, dizziness, fatigue, blurred vision, chest pain, difficulty breathing,
and nosebleeds. In severe cases, high blood pressure can also cause cognitive impairment,
kidney damage, and heart disease.
• In some cases, people with high blood pressure may not experience any symptoms at all.
• That's why it's important to get regular blood pressure checks, even if you feel fine.
• Early detection and treatment of hypertension can help to prevent the development of serious
health problems.
 TREATMENT

• Treatment for high blood pressure typically involves lifestyle changes, medication, or a
combination of the two. Lifestyle changes that can help to lower blood pressure include reducing
salt intake, eating a healthy diet, exercising regularly, maintaining a healthy weight, and reducing
stress.
• If lifestyle changes alone are not enough to control blood pressure, medication may be
prescribed..
 HEART ATTACK

• A heart attack, also known as a myocardial infarction, occurs when the blood supply to a part of
the heart muscle is blocked.
• This can happen when an artery becomes blocked by a blood clot, usually caused by plaque
buildup (atherosclerosis).
• When the heart muscle doesn't receive the oxygen and nutrients it needs, it can become damaged
or die. Symptoms of a heart attack can include chest pain, shortness of breath, sweating,
dizziness, nausea, and vomiting. Some people may have no symptoms, or they may be mild and
go unnoticed.
• Heart attacks can be life-threatening, and prompt treatment is essential
 CAUSES

• There are many factors that can contribute to the development of a heart attack. Some of the
most common include: high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, obesity, tobacco use, and
a lack of physical activity.
• Some people are also born with heart conditions that can increase their risk of developing a heart
attack.
• Additionally, certain lifestyle choices, such as an unhealthy diet and excessive alcohol
consumption, can also put people at risk. Even stress can increase the risk of a heart attack, as it
can lead to an increase in blood pressure and heart rate.
 SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

• The signs and symptoms of a heart attack can vary from person to person, but some common
symptoms include chest pain or pressure, shortness of breath, sweating, nausea, and vomiting.
The chest pain associated with a heart attack is often described as a crushing, squeezing, or
heavy feeling in the center of the chest. It may also spread to the shoulders, neck, or arms. Other
symptoms of a heart attack can include weakness, dizziness, or lightheadedness. It's important to
seek immediate medical attention if you experience any of these symptoms, as a heart attack is a
life-threatening medical emergency
 TREATMENT

• Treatment for a heart attack typically begins with an emergency procedure called angioplasty, in
which a balloon is used to open up the blocked artery and restore blood flow to the heart. This
procedure is often followed by a stent placement, which is a small mesh tube that helps keep the
artery open. Some people may also need bypass surgery, in which a healthy artery or vein is used
to create a new route for blood to flow around the blockage. Medications, such as aspirin, beta-
blockers, and statins, may also be prescribed to prevent further heart attacks and improve
overall heart health
 CARDIAC CYCLE

• PULMONARY CIRCULATION
• Pulmonary circulation refers to the part of the circulatory system that carries deoxygenated blood
from the heart to the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide, and then
returns the oxygenated blood back to the heart. It is a crucial component of the overall
circulatory system, which also includes the systemic circulation.
• 1. Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium of the heart from two large veins called the superior
vena cava and the inferior vena cava. The blood has already delivered oxygen to the body's tissues
and has picked up carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular metabolism.
• 2. From the right atrium, the blood flows into the right ventricle. When the right ventricle
contracts, it pumps the deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary artery.
• 3. The pulmonary artery splits into two branches, known as the left and right pulmonary arteries,
which carry the blood to the left and right lungs, respectively.
• 4. Inside the lungs, the pulmonary arteries further divide into smaller arterioles and eventually into
tiny capillaries. These capillaries surround the air sacs called alveoli, where gas exchange takes
place.
• 6. Oxygenated blood from the lungs then returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins. The
four pulmonary veins (two from each lung) carry the oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the
heart.
• 7. Finally, the oxygenated blood flows from the left atrium into the left ventricle, which contracts
to pump the blood out to the body through the systemic circulation, delivering oxygen and
nutrients to the body's tissues.
• This cycle repeats continuously to ensure a constant supply of oxygen to the body and to remove
carbon dioxide. The pulmonary circulation is separate from the systemic circulation, which
involves the circulation of oxygenated blood throughout the rest of the body.
 SYSTEMATIC CIRCULATION

• Systemic circulation, also known as the systemic circulatory system or simply the systemic
circulation, is the part of the circulatory system that carries oxygenated blood from the heart to
all the tissues and organs of the body, and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart. It is
responsible for delivering oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and other essential substances to the
body's cells and removing waste products.
• 1. Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left atrium of the heart through the pulmonary
veins.
• 2. From the left atrium, the blood flows into the left ventricle. When the left ventricle contracts, it
pumps the oxygenated blood into the aorta, the largest artery in the body.
• 3. The aorta branches out into many smaller arteries that carry the oxygenated blood to various
parts of the body. These arteries further divide into arterioles and then into tiny capillaries.
• 4. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels and have thin walls that allow for the exchange of
oxygen, nutrients, and waste products with the surrounding cells. Oxygen and nutrients diffuse out
of the capillaries into the tissues, while waste products, such as carbon dioxide and metabolic
byproducts, move from the tissues into the capillaries.
• 5. Deoxygenated blood, carrying waste products, flows from the capillaries into venules, which
merge to form larger veins.
• 6. The veins gradually converge into two major veins, the superior vena cava and the inferior vena
cava, which return the deoxygenated blood to the right atrium of the heart.
• 7. The deoxygenated blood then continues its journey through the pulmonary circulation to the
lungs, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide, and the cycle repeats.
• Systemic circulation ensures that all the cells and organs of the body receive the necessary oxygen
and nutrients for their functioning, while also removing waste products. It is a vital process that
supports the overall functioning and homeostasis of the body.
 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
The lymphatic system is a network of vessels and organs that helps to
maintain fluid balance, remove waste and toxins, and fight infection in
the body. The lymphatic system is made up of the following parts:
 THYMUS

• The thymus is a small, dual-lobed gland located in the chest cavity, just behind the breastbone.
• It is part of the lymphatic system and is responsible for the maturation of T cells or educates, a type of immune cell.
• T cells are produced in the bone marrow and then migrate to the thymus where they undergo a process called
thymic education.
• This process involves exposure to different types of molecules, which helps to shape the T cells' ability to recognize
foreign invaders.
• Once they are mature, T cells leave the thymus and circulate throughout the body, ready to fight infection.
• Helps the immune system develop during childhood
 LYMPHATIC VESSELS

• The main function of the lymphatic vessels is to transport lymph fluid throughout the body.
• This fluid contains white blood cells, which help to fight infection, as well as waste products
that need to be removed from the body
• Lymphatic vessels also help to regulate fluid balance by returning excess fluid from the tissues
to the bloodstream.
• In addition, they carry fat from the digestive system to the bloodstream.
• Without the lymphatic vessels, the body would not be able to properly fight infection, remove
waste, or maintain fluid balance.
 SPLEEN

• Filters blood and removes old or damaged blood cells

• Stores and recycles platelets
• Regulates the amount of blood in the body
• Breaks down and recycles haemoglobin in the body
• Produces antibodies that help fight infections
Spleen
 BONE MARROW

• Found in the hollow centres of Long bones (femur, humerus), hip bones, sternum – most active
sites of hematopoiesis
• Where lymphocytes are produced
• Produces B cells and T cells which become educates in the thymus
• Produces red blood cells and platelets
 LYMPH

• Removes toxins and waste from the body’s tissues

• It flows through lymphatics vessels
• It regulate fluid levels in the body
• Absorbs fats from digestive system and transfers them to the blood stream
• lymph is the clear fluid that circulates throughout the lymphatic system in the human body
• It maintains the fluid balance,
• It transports nutrients and helps with removal of waste products
• It also helps in immune system
 TONSILS

• tonsilsThese are clusters of lymphoid tissues

• They are located in the throat and nasal passages
• They help to trap n remove bacteria and pathogens that enter the body through the mouth and
nose
• Manufacture white blood cells
• They produce antibodies
 • They are small and bean shaped
LYMPH NODES
• They are located near lymphatic vessels
• They act as filters, trappers of virus n bacteria
• They contain immune cells (lymphocytes to fight
infection)