BIOL 1P91

Concepts in Biology I

Lecture 5:
• Begin Chapter 4:
• Membranes
• Membrane proteins
• Passive transport
• Osmosis
Cell Membranes
and Signalling:
Outside cell Integral
Carbohydrate
proteins
•Recall: membrane consists of Integral

lipid bilayer with proteins Glycolipid

proteins

suspended in it

Plasma membrane

Gate Cholesterol Integral protein

(transport protein)

Integral protein
Peripheral Glycoprotein Peripheral protein Microfilament
Peripheral
(gated channel

protein)
proteins (linking microtubule of cytoskeleton
protein
Cytosol to membrane)
Integral proteins span the membrane
• e.g., ion channels, transport proteins

Peripheral proteins do not span the membrane

• Some proteins linked to microtubules
• Some proteins (glycoproteins) have carbohydrate attached

Membrane asymmetry: reflects different functions for each side

• glycolipids & carbohydrate groups largely on external side
• cytoskeletal components bind to proteins in internal side
• receptors for hormones & growth factors on external side
Stable structures formed by phospholipids in water:
Liposome:
• Sphere
formed by 2
Micelle: phospholipid
• Sphere with polar heads layers, with
outward & all tails inward tails inward

Phospholipid bilayer
© Cengage Learning 2019
Cell membrane is fluid:
proteins diffuse laterally
Frye & Edidin (1970) J Cell
Science 7:319-335
• Cultured mouse & human cells
• Labelled membrane proteins
by binding antibodies to them
• Antibodies had fluorescent
dye attached Used virus to
fuse cells
• Produced hybrid cells
(mouse/human)
• Initially, fluorescent label
restricted to one region in
hybrid
• Over 40 min, label spread © Cengage Learning 2019
across entire cell
 Hybrid cell – Hybrid cell after 40 min – separate photos
initial appearance for each antibody
Mouse
proteins

Human
Frye & Edidin (1970) J Cell Science 7:319-335
proteins

• Change in protein distribution caused by diffusion laterally in cell membrane

• Authors ruled out other explanations (protein turnover, new protein synthesis,
movement between membrane & cytosol)
• Decreasing temperature slowed diffusion
Membrane phospholipids:

Hydrophilic (Polar)
• e.g. phosphatidylcholine
• Polar head: • Choline
• Phosphate
• Glycerol

Hydrophobic (Nonpolar) © Cengage Learning 2019

 Hydrophilic (Polar)
Membrane phospholipids:
• e.g. phosphatidylcholine

• Non-polar tail:

Hydrophobic (Nonpolar)
• 2 fatty acids with long
hydrocarbon chains (18
carbons each)
• Double bond between 2
carbons in one fatty acid makes
molecule bend (“kink”)
© Cengage Learning 2019
Saturated fatty acids:
• Lack double bonds (C C)
• Lack “kinks”
• Pack more tightly
• More viscous / less fluid
Viscous
Saturated hydrocarbon
tails
Unsaturated fatty acids:
• have double bonds (C C)
• have “kinks”
• Pack more loosely
• Less viscous / more fluid
Fluid
Unsaturated hydrocarbon
tails with kinks
© Cengage Learning 2019
 Cells adjust compensate for
these effects by adjusting
saturation of fatty acids:

• Decreasing temperature
decreases membrane fluidity –
gel at low temp.
• Increasing temperature
increases fluidity – membrane
loses integrity at high temp.
• Desaturase enzyme produces
• C C bonds & increases
fluidity
• Expression of desaturase
enzyme (i.e. RNA synthesis &
translation into protein)
increases as temperature
decreases
 Sterols (e.g. cholesterol)
also regulate fluidity:
• Act as “buffers” to reduce effects
of temp. change:
• High temp: help restrain
movement of fatty acids,
reducing fluidity
• Low temp: occupy space
between fatty acids,
preventing them from
associating, which slows
transition to “gel-state”

• Sterols found in membranes of

animal cells but not plants or
prokaryotes.
Key functions of
membrane proteins:
Transport:
• Many substances can’t diffuse
through membrane (ions, sugars,
amino acids…)
• Channels allow diffusion through
membrane
• Carrier proteins change shape to
shuttle substances across

Enzymatic activity:
• Many enzymes are membrane
proteins
• Some associated with
respiratory & photosynthetic
transport chains
• Some activate/produce
intracellular signalling
molecules
Key functions of
membrane proteins:
Signal Transduction:
• Many cells have receptors on
outer surface that bind to
hormones or other signaling
molecules
• Binding triggers changes on
inside surface of membrane,
leading to cellular response
Attachment / Recognition:
• Proteins exposed to both internal
and external membrane surfaces:
• act as attachment points for
cytoskeletal elements
• serve as components in cell-
cell recognition (e.g. during
development)
Integral Membrane
Proteins:
• Embedded in lipid bilayer
• Traverse entire bilayer
(transmembrane proteins)
• Distinct domains (parts):
• Hydrophobic domain in lipid
(non-polar amino acids)
• Hydrophilic domains outside
lipid (polar amino acids)
• Protein’s primary structure: amino
acid sequence
• Secondary structure: immediate
folding of amino acid chain
• Alpha helix in this ion channel
protein – 7 alpha helices through
membrane
 Ile
Ser Leu
Asp
Ile
Phe Glu
nonpolar
Met Tyr side
chains
Polar and charged Nonpolar
amino acids are amino acids
hydrophilic are hydrophobic
Isoleucine Leucine
Ile (I) Leu (L)
Glu
he Met Tyr
Charged
side chain
e P
lle Leu Il

polar side
chain
Aspartic acid Serine
Ser

Asp (D) Ser (S)

As p
Passive Membrane Transport

Passive transport: movement of

molecules across a membrane
without need to expend energy
• i.e. exergonic process -- ∆G < 0
• Occurs by diffusion: net
movement of substance from
region of higher concentration
to region of lower concentration
• Driving force of diffusion is
increase in entropy as particles
disburse
• Diffusion only occurs if
concentration gradient exists
across membrane
• No net diffusion at equilibrium
Passive Membrane Transport:
Simple Diffusion Phospholipid bilayer
Some substances pass through by simple
diffusion (no transport protein needed):
O2, CO2, N2
• Usually lipid-soluble, uncharged
molecules
• Dissolved gases (O2, CO2) H2O, indole,
• Steroid hormones glycerol
• Some polar molecules (e.g. water,
glycerol) Glucose, sucrose
• Solubility of H2O in lipid is low,
but concentration of H2O on
either side of membrane is high, Cl–, K+, Na+
so some water can pass
Passive Membrane Transport:
Facilitated Diffusion Phospholipid bilayer
Other substances do NOT pass freely through
membranes: O2, CO2, N2
• Ions: (e.g. Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca2+, PO43-)
• charge prevents them from entering
membrane’s hydrophobic core H2O, indole,
• Hydration shells also make passage glycerol
difficult
• Sugars (e.g. glucose, sucrose) Glucose, sucrose

These require transport protein and pass

through by facilitated diffusion. Cl–, K+, Na+

2 types of transport proteins:

• channel proteins
• carrier proteins
1. Aquaporin (water
channel):
Channel proteins form pores in
membrane & substances pass
through
• Facilitates water transport
• Forms pore through lipid bilayer
• Water molecules pass through pore
along hydrogen-bonding sites on
protein
• Very specific for water
• Doesn’t pass ions (not even
H+!)
• Found in bacteria, plants, humans

© Cengage Learning 2019

2. Ion channels (allow ions
through):
Gated ion channels:
• form pores through lipid bilayer
• Often specific for certain ions
• Can switch between “open”,
”closed” and intermediate states in
response to
• change in electrical potential
across membrane (voltage)
• binding of chemical signal

Example: voltage-gated K+ channel

– allows K+ out of cell
• Other voltage-gated channels are
selective for K+, Na+, Ca2+
• One type of Cl- channel is mutated
© Cengage Learning 2019
in patients with cystic fibrosis
(CF)
3. Carrier proteins

• Bind substances
and transport them
across membrane
Distinguishing
facilitated diffusion
from simple diffusion:

As concentration difference
across membrane increases:
• Rate of facilitated diffusion
reaches maximum
(saturation)
• Rate of simple diffusion
does NOT saturate
Osmosis – passive diffusion of water:
•Even if solutes can’t cross membrane, water can!
•Osmosis: movement of water across membrane from solution of low solute
concentration to solution of high solute concentration
• Cytosol contains proteins & other dissolved molecules that can’t cross membrane
• Cells exposed to solution with lower solute concentration than cytosol (hypotonic) take
up water
• Cells exposed to solution with higher solute concentration than cytosol (hypertonic)
give up water
• In animals, extracellular fluid contains proteins, ions & other solutes and has same total
solute concentration as cytosol (i.e., extracellular fluid is isotonic to cells)
Osmosis across cellophane bag
filled with 2M sucrose: Only
water moves!

• Water enters bag with

hypotonic solution
• Water leaves bag with
hypertonic solution
• No net water movement across
bag with isotonic solution
…and the same
thing happens to
red blood cells
exposed to:
Many cellular processes require higher concentrations of molecules in
cellular compartments than outside.
Ion concentrations inside cells are different from concentrations outside

• Passive transport only moves substances down concentration gradients

• Passive transport would disrupt these gradients
• Active transport moves substances against gradients and requires energy
to do so!
• Active transport establishes & maintains gradients
Main functions of active transport:
• Maintaining ~constant intracellular concentrations of Na+, K+, Ca2+, H+
• Uptake of nutrients even when concentration is lower outside
• Removal of secretory or waste materials even when concentration is higher
outside

Active transport of ions (charged molecules) can alter electrical potential across
membrane (membrane potential):

• Directly, if transport protein moves net charge across membrane

• Animal cells: Na+/K+ pumps can move 3Na+ out of cell & 2K+ in
• Plant cells: proton pumps move H+ from cytosol to outside
• indirectly, if transport maintains gradients of ions that establish membrane
potential by diffusion of specific ions (e.g. K+)
• If cell membrane is permeably mainly to K+, it diffuses out, causing separation of
charge (inside negative)
• Most animal cells have membrane potential – inside negative (typically -60 to -70
mV for most animal cells)
• Plant cells, fungi, bacteria and Archaea also have membrane potentials
• Since ions are charged, their passive transport across membrane depends on
concentration gradient and electrical gradient (i.e. an “electrochemical gradient”)
2 types of active transport:

Primary active transport:

• Transport protein hydrolyzes ATP (i.e. has ATPase activity)
• Energy from ATP is used directly to power transport
• Used to transport cations (H+, Ca2+, Na+, K+) across membranes

Secondary active transport:

• Transport is indirectly driven by ATP
• ATP is used to build up & maintain electrochemical gradients of
ions (e.g. Na+)
• Active transport of substances is coupled to passive transport of
those ions DOWN their electrochemical gradients
Next Lecture:

Chapter 4 continued Active transport