Chapter 9

Appraising Sampling and Data

Collection in Quantitative Studies
Research Design: Defining your Population and Sampli
ng Strategy |
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Types of Sampling Methods (4.1) - YouTube

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Basic Sampling Concepts #1

 Population (“P” in PICO questions)

o The entire group of interest based on eligibility
criteria
 Sampling
o Selection of a portion of the population (a
sample) to represent the entire population
 Eligibility criteria
o The characteristics that define the population
 Inclusion criteria-participants must have
 Exclusion criteria-disqualify participants

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Basic Sampling Concepts #2

 Sampling bias: overrepresenting or

underrepresenting population segment in terms of
key characteristics
 Strata: subpopulations of a population (e.g.,
male/female)
 Target population: the entire population of
interest
 Accessible population
o The portion of the target population that is
accessible to the researcher, from which a
sample is drawn

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Sampling Goal in Quantitative Research

 Representative sample
o A sample whose key characteristics closely
approximate those of the population—a sampling
goal in quantitative research

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Sampling Designs in Quantitative
Studies

 Nonprobability sampling
o Does not involve selection of elements at
random; is rarely representative of the
population
 Probability sampling
o Involves random selection of elements: each
element has an equal, independent chance of
being selected.
o Allows researchers to estimate the magnitude of
sampling error (difference between population
values and sample values)

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Types of Nonprobability Sampling—
Quantitative Research

 Convenience sampling: selecting the most

conveniently available people as participants
 Quota sampling: identifying population strata and
figuring out how many people are needed from each
stratum
 Consecutive sampling: recruiting all people from
an accessible population over a specific time interval
 Purposive sampling: handpicking sample
members

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Comparison of Sampling Types

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Question #1

Which type of sampling is most vulnerable to bias?

a. Convenience sampling
b. Consecutive
c. Quota sampling
d. Purposive sampling

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Answer to Question #1

a. Convenience sampling
Rationale: Although it is the most widely used
approach for quantitative researchers, convenience
sampling is the most vulnerable to sampling biases.
The problem with convenience sampling is that people
who are readily available might be atypical of the
population.

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Types of Probability Sampling

 Simple random sampling

o Researchers establish a sampling frame—a list of
population elements.
 Stratified random sampling
o The population is first divided into two or more
strata, from which elements are randomly
selected.
 Systematic sampling
o Involves the selection of every kth case from a
list, such as every 10th person on a patient list

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Question #2

Tell whether the following statement is True or False.

Stratified random sampling is associated with a larger
sampling error, but it is more efficient.
a. True
b. False

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Answer to Question #2

b. False
Rationale: Stratified random sampling enhances
representativeness; cluster sampling is associated
with a larger sampling error but is considered more
efficient.

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Sample Size

 The number of study participants in the final

sample
o Sample size adequacy is a key determinant of
sample quality in quantitative research.
o Sample size needs can and should be estimated
through power analysis.
o The risk of “getting it wrong” (statistical
conclusion validity) increases when samples are
too small.

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Critically Appraising Sampling Plans:
Considerations #1

 The type of sampling approach used (e.g.,

convenience, consecutive, random)
 The population and eligibility criteria for sample
selection
 The sample size, with a rationale
 A description of the sample’s main characteristics
(e.g., age, gender, clinical status, and so on)

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Critically Appraising Sampling Plans:
Considerations #2

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Quantitative Data Collection Methods - YouTube

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Data Collection in Quantitative Research

 Basic decision is the use of the following:

o New data, collected specifically for research
purposes, or
o Existing data
 Records (e.g., patient charts)
 Historical data
 Existing data set (secondary analysis)

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Major Types of Data Collection Methods

 Self-reports
o Patient-reported outcome (PRO)
 Observation
 Biophysiological measures
o Biomarkers

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Overview of Data Collection and Sources

 Structure
 Quantifiability
 Objectivity

 Comparable and in a pre-specified way

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Structured Self-Reports

 Data are collected with a formal instrument.

o Interview schedule
 Questions are prespecified but asked orally.
 Either face-to-face or by telephone
o Questionnaire
 Questions prespecified in written form, to be
self-administered by respondents

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Types of Questions in a Structured
Instrument #1

 Closed-ended (fixed alternative) questions

o For example, “Within the past 6 months, were
you ever a member of a fitness center or
gym?” (yes/no)
 Open-ended questions
o For example, “Why did you decide to join a
fitness center or gym?”

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Types of Questions in a Structured
Instrument #2

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Advantages of Questionnaires (Compared
With Interviews)

 Questionnaires are less costly and are advantageous

for geographically dispersed samples.
 Questionnaires offer the possibility of anonymity,
which may be crucial in obtaining information about
certain opinions or traits.

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Advantages of Interviews (Compared
With Questionnaires)

 Higher response rates

 Appropriate for more diverse audiences
o Some people cannot fill out a questionnaire.
 Opportunities to clarify questions or to determine
comprehension
 Opportunity to collect supplementary data through
observation

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Question #3

What is a major advantage of using a questionnaire?

a. Higher response rates
b. Diversity of audience is not a problem.
c. Lower cost
d. Questions can be clarified if needed.

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Answer to Question #3

c. Lower cost
Rationale: Because each subject does not need to be
seen face-to-face, questionnaires are associated with
lower costs than interviews.

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Composite Psychosocial Scales

 Scale—a device that assigns a numeric score to

people along a continuum
o Used to make fine quantitative discriminations
among people with different attitudes,
perceptions, traits
 Likert scales—summated rating scales
 Summated rating scales (composite scales)

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Likert Scales #1

 Consist of several declarative statements (items)

expressing viewpoints
 Responses are on an agree/disagree continuum
(usually five or seven response options).
 Responses to items are summed to compute a total
scale score.

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Likert Scales #2

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Response Set Biases

 Biases reflecting the tendency of some people to

respond to items in characteristic ways,
independently of item content
 Examples
o Social desirability response set bias
o Extreme response set
o Acquiescence response set (yea-sayers)

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Evaluation of Self-Reports

 Strong on directness
 Allows access to information otherwise not available
to researchers
 But can we be sure participants actually feel or act
the way they say they do?

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Observation

 Structured observation of prespecified behaviors

o Involves the use of formal instruments and
protocols that dictate what to observe, how long
to observe it, and how to record the data
 Focus of observation
 Clear-cut assessment criteria
 Method of recording observations

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Structured Observations

 Category systems  checklists

o Formal systems for systematically recording the
incidence or frequency of prespecified behaviors
or events
o Systems vary in their exhaustiveness.
 Exhaustive system: All behaviors of a specific
type recorded, and each behavior are assigned
to one mutually exclusive category.
 Nonexhaustive system: Specific behaviors, but
not all behaviors, are recorded.

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Rating Scales

 Ratings are on a descriptive continuum, typically

bipolar.
 Ratings can occur:
o At specific intervals
o Upon the occurrence of certain events
o After an observational session (global ratings)

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Observational Sampling

 Time sampling—sampling of time intervals for

observation
o Examples
 Random sampling of intervals of a given
length
 Systematic sampling of intervals of a given
length
 Event sampling—observation of integral events;
requires researchers to either know when events
will occur or wait for their occurrence.

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Evaluation of Observational Methods

 Excellent method for capturing many clinical

phenomena and behaviors
 Potential problem of reactivity when people are
aware that they are being observed
 Risk of observational biases—factors that can
interfere with objective observation
o Observational biases probably cannot be
eliminated, but they can be minimized through
careful observer training and assessment.

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Biophysiological Measures

 In vivo measurements
o Performed directly within or on living organisms
(e.g., blood pressure measures)
 In vitro measurements
o Performed outside the organism’s body (e.g.,
urinalysis)

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Question #4

Which procedure would be classified as an in vivo

biophysiological measure?
a. Tissue biopsy
b. Blood glucose level
c. Bacterial culture
d. Body temperature

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Answer to Question #4

d. Body temperature
Rationale: In vivo measures are those performed
directly within or on living organisms, such as blood
pressure, body temperature, and vital capacity
measurements. Tissue biopsy, blood glucose level,
and bacterial culture are examples of in vitro
measures.

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Evaluation of Biophysiological Measures

 Strong on accuracy, objectivity, validity, and

precision
 May be cost-effective for nurse researchers
 But caution may be required for their use, and
advanced skills may be needed for interpretation

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Factors Affecting Data Quality in
Quantitative Research

 Procedures used to collect the data

 Circumstances under which data were gathered
 Adequacy of instruments or scales used to measure
constructs
o Psychometric assessment evaluates the
measure’s measurement properties.
o Reliability: extent to which scores are free from
measurement error

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Data Quality in Quantitative Research:
Validity #1

 Face validity: whether the instrument looks like it

is measuring the target construct
 Content validity: the extent to which the
instrument’s content adequately captures the
construct
 Criterion validity: the extent to which the scores
on a measure are a good reflection of a “gold
standard”
 Construct validity: the degree to which evidence
about a measure’s scores in relation to other
variables supports the inference that the construct
has been well represented

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Data Quality in Quantitative Research:
Validity #2

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