t bands denote small dispersion, small curvature (d2E/d2k) & hence a Large m*

amples:
nds for d-electron (Transition metals) & f-electrons (Rare-earth metals)

nds showing large dispersion, show large curvature, & imply small m*

amples:
nds for s-electrons & p-electrons

n Alkali metals & alkaline earth metals

What are Scaling Laws??

The scaling laws can be defined as proportionality relations of any parameter for a system
associated with its length scale.

Different scaling laws reveal the fact that shrinking of a body does not only lead to size
reduction,

but also leads to modifications of different physical effects and properties of the body.
Scaling laws are generally deduced at the macroscopic level, and in some cases may be used to
understand the behavior of the microscopic and nanoscopic level.

But in many cases, the scaling laws deduced at macroscopic level have to be used carefully due
to the fact that several ‘macroscopic’ experimental conditions are not valid particularly at
nanoscopic level, because the assumptions behind it become invalid at some large or small
scale.

To explain different properties at nanoscopic level, there is, thus, a need to modify our
understanding and reasoning.

This results in different scaling laws to understand the origin of the differences between the
macroworld and the nanoworld.
Moreover, in nanometer scale, another effect is very important: The quantum effect

Quantum effects start dominating over classical and semiclassical effects, when we work with
nanomaterials.
 https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/phy12/chapter/scaling-laws/#:~:text=The%20scaling%20laws%20can%20be,and
%20properties%20of%20the%20body.

There are Scaling laws relevant to

mechanics,
fluids,
electromagnetism,
thermodynamics,
optics and
quantum physics, ….

They can be applied to problems relevant to biology, micromachines and nanotechnologies.

It turns out that the reasoning based on our own experience has to be modified when dealing
with the microworld and the nanoworld, due to the fact that various physical effects scale
differently with size.
Scaling Laws: Mechanics

Ref. M. Wautelet 2001 European Journal of Physics

M. Wautelet, Eur. J. Phys. 22 (2001) 601–611 (This is one way of writing the
REFERENCES for Reports, Research papers etc.
Consider adhesion between two surfaces.

At the microscopic level, adhesion forces dominate

because the interatomic forces become very strong at small distances, compared to the
gravitational forces.
Consider adhesion between two surfaces.

It’s well known that the adhesion between a solid and another solid (or a liquid) is due to
forces between atoms and molecules.

The main forces responsible for adhesion are Van der Waals type forces.

The attractive force experienced by an infinite slab separated by a distance “x” from another
infinite slab is given by
Recall that

and that Van der Waals forces depend on surface area

 There are scaling laws for different fields, e.g.

1. Scaling laws, Mechanics

2. Scaling laws fluids

3. Scaling laws, electromagnetism

4. Scaling laws, thermodynamics

5. Scaling laws, optics

6. Scaling laws, quantum effects

(For more details, refer to Wautelet’s paper)
It turns out that the reasoning based on our own experience has to be modified when
dealing with the microworld and the nanoworld, due to the fact that various physical
effects scale differently with size.
So,
scaling is one thing –
the end of scaling another,
and surfaces a third!

Also, at some point the idealized classical point of view on a system being downscaled will
need quantum mechanics to describe what's going on in a proper way,

However, as the scale is decreased, the system might also be very different because the
interaction at the surface becomes very significant compared to the bulk.

Interestingly, at the same time a wealth of other new possibilities opens up!
MULTIFUNCTIONALITY

With miniaturization also comes a higher functional density, multifunctionality, which

increases exponentially with smaller parts.

A good example of this would be smart phones.

Thanks to being able to build smaller phone parts, phones are now
part Calendars,
part clocks,
part note pads
Part music players,
part gaming consoles,

along with being able to perform thousands of other functions.

MULTIFUNCTIONALITY (Contd… )

The manufacturing and use of these smaller parts and tools

is also becoming essential for biomedical purposes,

where big tools simply do not fit our organs or blood vessels without causing internal damage.
When the size of elements decreases down to the nanometre scale, quantum effects become
important.

In most situations, the quantum effects arise in the electronic properties.

In other words,
quantum effects have to be taken into account at a critical size of the elements Lc, which
compares with the wavelength associated with the electrons λel,

i.e. Lc ≈ λel = h/p,

where h is the Planck constant and p is the momentum of the electron.

Under these conditions, properties are very different from the bulk counterpart, e.g.

nanoparticles (also called quantum dots) behave like large atoms.

More on this later…….

Moore’s law

In 1965 Gordon Moore, the cofounder of Intel Corporation, made an amazing forecast:

The number of transistors on a chip in a given area would double in every 1.5 years.

Hence Computer Processing Power P, can be expressed as:

P = P0 x 2n

P = Computer processing power in future years (say y)

P0 = Computer processing power in the beginning year (say y0)
n = no. of years /1.5 = (y – y0)/1.5 = no. of doubling units.

In other words, size wise:

The dimension of a transistor size decreases by a factor of 2 in every 1.5 years.

 In fact Moore’s prediction comes to
Reality with the advancement of
semiconductors
e.g.
as Quantum dots;
Nano circuits involving the transistors,
interconnects and architecture.

Carbon nanotubes (CNT) as Nano wire are now being used to connect the parts within the
integrator circuits.

Even when conducting very high currents, CNT interconnects are not heated compared to
Copper wire in this dimension (which becomes strongly heated in conduction of electricity).

CNT Field Effect Transistors (CNT-FET) uses a CNT as the channel between the source and the
Drain does…… the idea of Nano electronics gets realized with such advanceents.
 Asim K Das & Mahua Das, An Intro to nanomats & NanoSc, CBS Publishers
Dimensions of Nanoregime:

Atomic & Molecular 0.1 to 10 nm microscopic range

Bulk Solids : > 150 nm (approx.) macroscopic range

Nanoscopic / Mesoscopic Range : 1 – 100 nm

The nanomats exhibit novel properties that are absent in both

 Asim K Das & Mahua Das
Sc : deals with special Properties of nanomats.

Tech : deals with fabrication of functional nanomats,

& of devices & systems by using nanomats, exploiting the properties of nanomats

mats in NATURE: Irridescent colors arising out of light scattering from nanostructured materials
Medagascan moth Peacock’s Plumage S

Lotus leaf
NanoTech in Nature

Nature has developed many devices in nano range, performing specific functions, e.g.

DNA for storage of the genetic information;

Ferritin (found in many biological systems, including us) for the storage of iron nanoparticles

Photosynthesis apparatus: for conversion of Light energy  Chemical energy

NanoSc in Ancient times:

Size-dependant optical properties of Au, Ag, Cu nanoparticles (earlier known as COLLOIDAL particles)
have long been used to colour the glasses

Lycurgus Cup in British Museum, London

Roman glass workers in 4th Century

made of glass stained with
different metal nanoparticles Shards from the cup, when analyzed:

The cups is made of Soda lime glass

stained with nanoparticles of Au & Ag
So a nanomaterial has

1, 2, or all the 3
dimensions
or
some regions with the size
of a few nm

•Interatomic distance in solids ~ Å, i.e. ~ 10-1 nm

In a nanomaterial, only a few atoms along at least 1 dimension.

Nanomats. have a large Surface to Volume ratio
(w.r.t.the bulk materials):

Consider a cube:

Surface area S ~ L2; Volume V ~ L3, S/V ~ 1/L

L (nanomaterial) <<< L (bulk material)

(S/V) nanomats >>> (S/V) for bulk materials

•Hence very good for those applications where large surface area is
required e.g. as catalysts, as sensors.

•The ratio of surface to volume is large enough in these materials

permitting the bonding of active ingredients.
Nanomaterials, including
nanotubes, nanowires, nanofibers,
nanorods, nanoparticles, nanocomposites
and other nano-structured materials,

have been widely applied

to fabricate a variety of chemosensors and biosensors

based on their unique physical and chemical properties, such as

large surface area/volume ratio,
good conductivity,
excellent electrocatalytic activity and
high mechanical strength.
Author: Tanji Yin, Wei Qin
Publish Year: 2013
Applications of nanomaterials in potentiometric sensors
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165993613001672
The very small dimensions of nanomaterials lead to
many superior physical, optical, electrical, and biological properties
that are suitable for a wide range of applications including drug delivery.

Herein are typical examples:

a decrease of melting temperature and an increase of catalytic activity appear

in nanomaterials

due to their huge surface area, high ratio of surface atoms to total number of
atoms, increased surface energy, etc.

High surface to volume ratio enables more drugs to be attached onto the
surface of nanomaterial, thus increasing the ability of drug loading.

Ease of surface modification allows nanomaterial to attach different kinds of

conjugate biomolecules to achieve target delivery.
Drugs can be protected by nanomaterials to avoid degradation during transport.

Nanomaterials can be fluorescent or responsive under

UV/Vis/NIR excitation or electrical or magnetic field

and therefore the drug delivery can be tracked and the release of drugs can
be precisely controlled.

Nanomaterials can increase the cellular uptake of drugs (because of the

surface charge, size, etc.,)

Owing to these properties, there has been a fast growing interest of using
nanomaterials in a broad range of applications including drug delivery.
The disadvantages of these materials are

•The exposure of human beings/ RESEARCHERS to nanomaterial due to

inhalation.
e.g. materials like carbon nanofibers and nanotubes lead to Pulmonary Fibrosis
(examined from the animal study).

• Nanoparticles are toxic to humans.

• Lack of proper knowledge of these materials may cause the process of

manufacturing to be difficult and complex.

• Often, the nanomaterials are unstable.

•The recycling of these materials is difficult.

Owing to their very small size,

Quantum size effects become important in nanomats:

L very small

When

L ~ λdeBroglie or L < λdeBroglie

Wave nature of carriers becomes important or Quantum behaviour of

carriers …..

In nanomaterials:

Large Surface to Volume ratio

Quantum confinement of carriers