King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals

Mechanical Engineering Department

ME 452: Measurements and Lab Project

First Semester 2022-2023 (221)

LECTURE 2

UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS AND

DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS
 REVIEW

 Importance of Measurement

 Experimental Design

 Stages of Measurement
System

 Selection of Appropriate Measuring Instrument

 REVIEW
TERMS USED IN INSTRUMENT RATING

 Accuracy & Precision

 Resolution & Sensitivity

 Calibration

 Types of Error

 Uncertainty The estimate of error is called

uncertainty.
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS

DATA REDUCTION

Temperature Measurements:

T1 = 30 C
T2 = 31 C
T3 = 32 C
T4 = 15 C
Which one is not accepted and why?
T5 = 29 C
T6 = 45 C 30 10

Bias Uncertainty
The Uncertainty Error
Precision Uncertainty
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS

 In many experimental situations, the final desired result is not measured

directly.

 So, measurements of several variables are substituted into a data reduction

equation to obtain the desired quantity.

 As an example, suppose the density ρ of a flowing gas stream is desired.

 Ideal gas equation can be used to find density, by measuring Pressure and
Temperature.

or
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS

 How do the uncertainties in the individual measured variables P and T

propagate through the data reduction equation into the final result for ρ ?

𝜌=𝑃 / 𝑅𝑇

 Concept of error propagation is introduced in relation with the errors of

original measurements.
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
PROPAGATION OF BIAS ERRORS

 How to find the overall bias limit for the calculated variable?

 The techniques of uncertainty analysis are used to combine the bias limits
for the measured variables into a bias limit “BR” for the experimental
result.

 Each of the individual measurement variables (X1, X2,…,XK) is subjected

to several elemental bias errors.

 The bias limits for each of these elemental sources are combined to obtain
the overall bias limit (B1,B2,…,BK) for each variable.
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
PROPAGATION OF BIAS ERRORS

 The preferred method for doing this is called the root-sum-square (RSS).

 For measurement variable XK this is given by:

𝐵 𝐾 = √ 𝐵 +𝐵 +…+𝐵
2
𝐾1
2
𝐾2
2
𝐾𝑀

 Next uncertainty analysis is applied to determine the propagation of the

bias limits (B1,B2,…,BK) for the individual variables, through the data
reduction equation to form the bias limit BR for the experimental result.
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
PROPAGATION OF BIAS ERRORS

 If Z= F (X1 , X2 , X3 , X4)

 The error in Z will be dz,

 Error F due to X1 can

be estimated as

 Under these conditions, the bias limit for the result is given by the
uncertainty analysis expression

2 2
] +] +....
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
PROPAGATION OF PRECISION ERRORS

 The procedure for determining the precision limit is similar to that for
determining the bias limit .

 The measurement of each variable (X1, X2,…,XK) is influenced by

precision errors from a number of elemental error sources.

 These random errors combine to cause the precision error in the

measurement of each variable
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
PROPAGATION OF PRECISION ERRORS

 The precision error is quantified by determining the precision limit (P 1, P2,

…,PK) of each measured variable.

 Then uncertainty analysis is done to find propagation of precision error,

termed as precision limit PR .

 If more than one factor is contributing to precision error, then precision

limit is determined by taking into account contributions of the elemental
error sources.
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
PROPAGATION OF PRECISION ERRORS

 For the XK measurement variable, suppose that M elemental precision error

sources are identified and their 95% confidence precision limits are
determined as (PK)1 , (PK)2 , ..., (PK)M. Then at 95% confidence, the overall
precision limit PK is given by

𝑃 𝐾 = √ 𝑃 +𝑃 +…+ 𝑃
2
𝐾1
2
𝐾2
2
𝐾𝑀
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
OVERALL UNCERTAINTY OF THE EXPERIMENTAL RESULT

 The overall uncertainty of the experimental result, is determined by

combining the bias and precision limits, and .

 This is accomplished using the root-sum-square (RSS) method.

𝑈 𝑅= √ 𝐵 + 𝑃
2
𝑅
2
𝑅
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the total uncertainty in the current (), voltage () and power ().

Current () Voltage ()
Bias Error Precision Bias Error Precision
Error Error
+0.2 -0.18 +1.5 -3
-0.3 +0.27 +2.2 +2.5
 The total uncertainty in the current ():

𝑈 𝐼= √ 𝐵 +𝑃
2
𝐼
2
𝐼
= The bias uncertainty in the current

= The precision uncertainty in the current

 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the total uncertainty in the current (), voltage () and power ().

Current () Voltage ()
Bias Error Precision Bias Error Precision
Error Error
+0.2 -0.18 +1.5 -3
-0.3 +0.27 +2.2 +2.5
 The bias uncertainty in the current ():

𝐵 𝐼 =√ 𝐸 +𝐸 +…+𝐸
2
𝐵1
2
𝐵2
2
𝐵𝑘
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the total uncertainty in the current (), voltage () and power ().

Current () Voltage ()
Bias Error Precision Bias Error Precision
Error Error
+0.2 -0.18 +1.5 -3
-0.3 +0.27 +2.2 +2.5
 The precision uncertainty in the current ():

𝑃 𝐼 =√ 𝐸 +𝐸 +…+ 𝐸
2
𝑃1
2
𝑃2
2
𝑃𝑘
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the total uncertainty in the current (), voltage () and power ().

Current () Voltage ()
Bias Error Precision Bias Error Precision
Error Error
+0.2 -0.18 +1.5 -3
-0.3 +0.27 +2.2 +2.5
 The total uncertainty in the voltage ():

𝑈 𝑉 =√ 𝐵 +𝑃2
𝑉
2
𝑉
= The bias uncertainty in the voltage

= The precision uncertainty in the voltage

 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the total uncertainty in the current (), voltage () and power ().

Current () Voltage ()
Bias Error Precision Bias Error Precision
Error Error
+0.2 -0.18 +1.5 -3
-0.3 +0.27 +2.2 +2.5
 The bias uncertainty in the voltage ():

𝐵𝑉 =√ 𝐸 +𝐸 +…+𝐸 2
𝐵1
2
𝐵2
2
𝐵𝑘
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the total uncertainty in the current (), voltage () and power ().

Current () Voltage ()
Bias Error Precision Bias Error Precision
Error Error
+0.2 -0.18 +1.5 -3
-0.3 +0.27 +2.2 +2.5
 The precision uncertainty in the voltage ():

𝑃 𝑉 =√ 𝐸 +𝐸 +…+𝐸 2
𝑃1
2
𝑃2
2
𝑃𝑘
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the total uncertainty in the current (), voltage () and power ().

 The total uncertainty in the power ():

𝑈 𝑃= √ 𝐵 +𝑃 2
𝑃
2
𝑃
 The bias uncertainty in the power ():

√[ ][ ] √[ ][ ]
2 2 2 2
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝐵𝑃 1 𝜕 𝑃 1 𝜕𝑃
𝐵 𝑃= 𝐵𝐼 + 𝐵𝑉 Or = ∗ 𝐵𝐼 + ∗ 𝐵𝑉
𝜕𝐼 𝜕𝑉 𝑃 𝑃 𝜕𝐼 𝑃 𝜕𝑉

Pm = I m ∗ V m
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the total uncertainty in the current (), voltage () and power ().

 The precision uncertainty in the power ():

√[ ][ ] √[ ][ ]
2 2 2 2
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝑃𝑃 1 𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕𝑃
𝑃 𝑃= 𝑃𝐼 + 𝑃𝑉 Or = ∗ 𝑃𝐼 + ∗ 𝑃𝑉
𝜕𝐼 𝜕𝑉 𝑃 𝑃 𝜕𝐼 𝑃 𝜕𝑉

I x =1 0 ± U I

V x =2 20 ± U V

P x =2 200 ± U P
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE 2
Measured Variable, Xi Nominal Value Bias Limit, B Precision
Limit, P
Drag force, FD 0.5 N 0.02 N
0.032 N
Water density, ρ 998 kg/m3 0.2%
---
Free stream velocity, V 5 m/s 0.1 m/s
0.18 m/s SOLUTION
Sphere diameter, D 10 mm 0.1 mm
0.05Writing
mm the expression for the data reduction equation and the uncertainty
expression for the bias limit :

8 −1 − 2 −2
𝐶 𝐷= 𝐹 𝐷 𝜌 𝑉 𝐷
𝜋

[ ] √[ ][ ][ ][ ]
2 2 2 2
𝐵𝐶 1 𝜕𝐶𝐷 1 𝜕𝐶𝐷 1 𝜕 𝐶𝐷 1 𝜕𝐶𝐷
𝐷
= 𝐵 + 𝐵 + 𝐵 + 𝐵
𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝐷 𝜕 𝐹 𝐷 𝐹 𝐷
𝐶𝐷 𝜕 𝜌 𝜌 𝐶𝐷 𝜕𝑉 𝑉 𝐶𝐷 𝜕 𝐷 𝐷
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE 2

 Computing the derivatives:

 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE 2

 Substituting into the uncertainty expression for :

[ ] √[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
2 2 2 2
𝐵𝐶 𝐵𝐹 𝐵𝜌 𝐵𝑉 𝐵𝐷
𝐷
= 𝐷
+ +4 +4
𝐶𝐷 𝐹𝐷 𝜌 𝑉 𝐷

 Thus, the bias limit depends most strongly on and , i.e., the factors in the
data reduction equation with the largest exponents, which is always the case
for reduction expressions of "power law" form.
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE 2

Measured Variable, Xi Nominal Value Bias Limit, B Precision

Limit, P
Drag force, FD 0.5 N 0.02 N
0.032 N
Water density, ρ 998 kg/m3 0.2%
---
Free stream velocity, V 5 m/s 0.1 m/s
 Substituting numerical
0.18 m/s values:

[ ] √[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
Sphere diameter, D 10
2 mm 2 0.1
2 mm 2
𝐵
0.05 mm 𝐶 = 𝐵 𝐹 𝐵𝜌 𝐵𝑉 𝐵𝐷
𝐷 𝐷
+ +4 +4
𝐶𝐷 𝐹𝐷 𝜌 𝑉 𝐷

[ 𝐶 ]= √[ 0.5 ] +( 0.002) + 4 [ 5 ] +4 [ 10 ]
𝐵 2 2 2
𝐶𝐷0.02 0.1 2 0.1
𝐷

[ ] 𝐵𝐶
𝐷

𝐶𝐷
≈𝟔.𝟎%
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE 2

 Now considering the precision limits, the uncertainty expression for is:

[ ] √[ ][ ][ ]
2 2 2
𝑃𝐶 1 𝜕𝐶 𝐷 1 𝜕𝐶 𝐷 1 𝜕𝐶 𝐷
=𝐷
𝑃 + 𝑃 + 𝑃
𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝐷 𝜕 𝐹𝐷 𝐹 𝐶 𝐷 𝜕𝑉 𝑉 𝐷
𝐶𝐷 𝜕 𝐷 𝐷

 Substituting the derivatives,

[ ] √[ ] [ ] [ ]
2 2 2
𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐹 𝑃𝑉 𝑃𝐷
𝐷
= 𝐷
+4 +4
𝐶𝐷 𝐹𝐷 𝑉 𝐷

[ ]
𝑃𝐶
𝐶𝐷
≈𝟗.𝟕%
𝐷
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE 2

 Combining the bias and precision limits by the RSS method:

√[ ][ ]
2 2
𝑈𝐶 𝐵𝐶 𝑃𝐶
𝐷
= 𝐷
+ 𝐷

𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝐷

𝑈𝐶
=0.114 =𝟏𝟏 . 𝟒 %
𝐷

𝐶𝐷
 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
EXAMPLE 2

 Thus, under these conditions the total uncertainty in the drag coefficient is
11.4%. Since the nominal value of is

8 𝐹𝐷
𝐶 𝐷= =𝟎 . 𝟓𝟏𝟎
𝜋 𝜌𝑉 𝐷
2 2

= 0.510 * 0.114 = 0.058

 This result can be written as = 0.510 ± 0.058.

𝟎 . 𝟒𝟓𝟐< 𝑪 𝑫 < 𝟎 . 𝟓𝟔𝟖

 INDICATING UNCERTAINTY

 Explicit: using ± followed by a number. Often used for results derived

directly from experimental quantities.

 Implicit: restricting the number of significant figures so that only the last
digit is uncertainty.
 ERROR BARS ON GRAPHS

 Having taken measurements and calculated the associated uncertainties, it

is often necessary to plot these values graphically.

 Uncertainty can be represented as error bars (uncertainty bars) on graphs .

 Error bars are simply lines used to represent the possible range of values,
the line or curve drawn through the points can pass through any part of the
error bar.
 ERROR BARS ON GRAPHS

 Error bars enable goodness of fit to a specific statistical model to be

assessed.

 The best fit curve should pass through all the rectangles created by the
error bars.

 The last model is not a good fit to the data.

 ERROR BARS ON GRAPHS

 The values on the x-axis are

shown with a constant absolute
uncertainty,

 The values on the y-axis are

shown with a percentage
uncertainty (and so the error bars
gets bigger)
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

 Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals, that measure the real
world physical conditions, and converting the resulting samples into digital
numeric values, that can be used by computer.

 Data acquisition systems typically convert analog waveforms into digital

values for processing.
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
 Components of data acquisition system

 The components of data acquisition systems include:

 Transducer that convert physical parameters to electrical signals.

 Signal conditioning circuits to modify the sensor signals into a form that
can be converted to digital values.

 Analog-to-digital converters, which convert conditioned sensor signals to

digital values.

 Software tools used for building large-scale data acquisition systems.

Graphical programming environments include ladder logic, Visual C++,
Visual Basic, and LabVIEW.
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

 DAQ Hardware

 DAQ hardware is what usually interfaces between the signal and a PC.

 It could be in the form of modules that can be connected to the computer's

ports (parallel, serial, USB, etc.) or cards connected to slots.
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

 DAQ Hardware
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
 Types of Data Acquisition Systems

 Wireless Data Acquisition Systems.

 Serial Communication Data Acquisition Systems (Distant from computer).

 USB Data Acquisition Systems (Easier and commonly used).

 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

 DAQ Software

 DAQ software is used in order to link the DAQ hardware with the
computer.