THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE

The atomic structure

The atom

Mass Spectrometer

Electron arrangement

Electron configuration

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The atom
• State the position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom.

• State the relative masses and relative charges of protons, neutrons and
electrons.

• Define the terms mass number (A), atomic number (Z) and isotopes of
an element.

• Deduce the symbol for an isotope given its mass number and atomic
number.

• Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms and

ions from the mass number, atomic number and charge.

• Compare the properties of the isotopes of an element.

• Discuss the uses of radioisotopes

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State the position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom.

• Protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus

of an atom, electrons are in orbits or shells
around the nucleus.
• Atomic number, Z = number of protons; the
fundamental characteristic of an element.

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Relative masses and relative charges of protons, neutrons and electrons.

• Relative masses: p = 1, n = 1, e = 1/1840; charges:

p = +1, n = 0, e- = -1.

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The atom

• Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the

same atomic number / proton number but different
mass number/ number of neutrons
• Isotopes differ in physical properties that depend
on mass such as density, rate of diffusion etc.
• Chemical properties are the same because of the
same electronic configuration or arrangement.

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The atom

• Atomic mass of an atom is the average of the

atomic masses of its isotopes; depends on isotopes
relative abundance; leads to non-integer atomic
masses.
• Atomic number is the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom.

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Creating radioisotopes

Radioactive isotopes of all elements can be produced by

exposing the natural element to a flux of slow moving
neutrons in a nuclear reactor.
This results in the nucleus of the atom capturing an
additional neutron.

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Radiocarbon dating

•The rate of radioactive decay of carbon-14, can be used to

date objects.
•Naturally occurring carbon in living organisms contains a
fixed proportion of carbon-14 owing to exchange with
carbon in the atmosphere.
•On death this interchange stops and the proportion of
carbon-14 starts to decrease. After about 5,700 years the
proportion of carbon-14 will have fallen to about half its
initial value.

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SHROUD OF TURIN

• PEOPLE HAVE CLAIMED

THAT THIS SHROUD
WAS USED TO RAP THE
BODY OF JESUS.

• ISOTOPES STUDY GAVE

ANOTHER ANSWER

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Radioisotopes as tracers
•Another use of radioisotopes is as
“tracers”. this relies on the fact that the
radioactive isotopes behave chemically,
and thus biologically, in an identical
manner to the stable isotopes.

•The activity of the thyroid gland, which

preferentially absorbs iodine, can be
measured by monitoring the increase in
radioactivity of the gland after taking a
drink containing traces of iodine
radioisotopes (typically 125I and 131I).

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Radioisotopes in radiotherapy

•Some radiosotopes produce

gamma rays and hence can be a
source of quite intense
radioactivity.
•`Cobalt-60 is an example of this
and radiation from cobalt-60
sources is used in radiation
treatment for cancer and
industrially in devices such as
those monitoring the thickness of
steel plate from a rolling mill.

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Mass Spectrometer

• Describe and explain the operation of a mass

spectrometer.
• Describe how the mass spectrometer may be used
to determine relative atomic mass using the 12C
scale.
• Calculate non-integer relative atomic masses and
abundance of isotopes from given data.

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Mass Spectrometer

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Mass Spectrometer

• Stages of Operation:
•

Vaporization of sample
ionization to produce M+ ions
– acceleration of ions by electric field
– deflection of ions by magnetic field
– detection of ions.

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Mass Spectrometer

• Region A contains the vapourised

substance. If it is already a gas, then it will
contain the gas at low pressure, if the
sample is a solid or liquid, it must be heated
to produce the vapour.

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Mass Spectrometer

• In region B, the particles are converted

from neutral atoms or molecules into
positive ions. This is usually done by
bombarding them with fast moving
electrons that are accelerated between the
two plates shown. These electrons collide
with electrons in the particle knocking
them out and leaving a positive ion.

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Mass Spectrometer

• In region C, these positive ions are

accelerated by the high electrical potential
difference between the two parallel
electrodes with holes in their centers.

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Mass Spectrometer

• In region D these fast moving ions enter a

magnetic field produced by an
electromagnet. The poles, shown as circles,
are above and below the plane of the
diagram. This causes the fast moving ions
to deflect

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Mass Spectrometer

• Particles of a certain mass (dependent on

the field strength) will continue round the
tube and strike the detector plate. Those
with a greater mass will not be deflected as
much and those with a smaller mass
(deflection depends on the charge to mass
ratio m/z).

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Mass Spectrometer

• In region E particle will be detected by

means of the current flow required to
neutralise the positive charge that they
carry - the greater the number of particles
of a given mass that are present, the greater
the current.

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Mass Spectrometer

Degree of deflection:
Lower the mass, higher the deflection.
Higher the charge, higher the deflection.
• Deflection reflects mass/charge ratio; for
charge of +1, deflection depends on mass.

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Mass Spectrometer

• For an element, the

mass spectrum gives
two important pieces
of information: the
number of isotopes,
and the abundance
of each isotope; thus
the relative average
atomic mass, Ar can
be calculated.

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Mass Spectrometer

• For a molecule, the highest peak represents the

molecular (parent) ion and its mass gives the
relative molecular mass, Mr of the compound (and
the fragmentation pattern can help determine its
structure).

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Electron Arrangement

• Describe the electromagnetic spectrum.

• Distinguish between a continuous spectrum and a
line spectrum.
• Explain how the lines in the emission spectrum of
hydrogen are related to electron energy levels.
• Deduce the electron arrangement for toms and ions
up to Z = 20

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Atomic emission spectrum

• The study of the emission of light by atoms and ions

is the most effective technique for deducing the
electronic structure of atoms.
• The term “light” is being used rather loosely to
indicate electromagnetic radiation. This covers
radiation from gamma rays through to radio waves

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Electromagnetic spectrum

• Electromagnetic waves have a range from very low

energy waves –like radio waves- and very-high
energetic waves like gamma radiations.

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Emission spectra

• Each element gives its characteristic set of colours .

• These colours could be observed by a spectrometer
as lines each of fixed wavelength called emission
spectrum.
• Emission spectra are not continuous but consist of
separate lines.
• These lines become closer ( converge towards the
higher energy end of the spectrum

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Bohr atomic structure

• The electron travels in orbits around the nucleus of the atom.

• When an electron absorbs energy it moves to a higher level.
• When an electron moves down to a lower level it emits a packet of
energy called quantum.
• Each packet corresponds to a certain wavelength and shows a certain
colour.
• Continuous spectrum was not observed which meant that electrons
can only exist in specific levels but not in between them.
• The value of the energy level n=1,2,3….. Is called the principle
quantum number
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Bohr Atomic model

• Electrons falling from the outer levels to

level 1 will emit the highest amount of
energy, and the spectra will be in the UV
region.
• Electrons falling to level 2 will form a n=3

spectrum that falls in the visible region. n=2

• Electron falling to level 3 will form a n=1

spectrum that falls in the infra red

region

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Hydrogen visible spectrum

• The emission spectrum of hydrogen shows

four discrete lines in the visible region.
• The lines are converging towards the violet
which is more energetic.
• There are other line spectrum for hydrogen
in the invisible region
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Convergence limit and ionization energy

• If sufficient energy is given to the atom, it is

possible to excite the electron beyond the
highest energy level.
• The electron will escape and the atom will
become an ion.

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1.Why do these levels mean that the atom will show an
emission spectrum of discrete lines rather than a continuous spectrum.

2.Which three of the lettered energy changes involve absorption of energy by

the atom?

3.Which three levels involves emission?

4.Of the three energy changes that involve emission, one results in blue light,
one results in yellow light and the third results in ultraviolet light
1.Which lettered change involve the emission of blue light?
2.Which lettered change involve the emission of yellow light?
3.Which lettered change involve the emission of ultraviolet light?

4
3
B C D E F
A 2

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Emission Spectrum
• When electrons are excited, they jump to
higher energy levels.
• Electrons fall back to lower energy levels, and
the energy equivalent to the difference in
energy level is emitted in the form of photons.

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Emission Spectrum

• A continuous spectrum contains light of all

wavelengths in the visible range.
• A line spectrum consists of a few lines of different
wavelengths.

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Emission Spectrum

• Energy levels come together in terms of

energy the farther away they are from the
nucleus; this explains the convergence of lines
in a line spectrum.

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Electron configuration

• Explain how evidence from first ionization energies across periods

accounts for the existence of main energy levels and sub-levels in atoms.

• Explain how successive ionization energy data is related to the electron

configuration of an atom.

• State the relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals in a single energy

level.

• State the maximum number of orbitals in a given energy level.

• Draw the shape of an s orbital and the shapes of the px, py and pz
orbitals.

• Apply the Aufbau principle, Hund’s rule and the Pauli exclusion
principle to write electron configurations for atoms and ions up to Z=54

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Ionization energy

• The ionisation energy of an atom is the minimum

amount of energy required to remove a mole of
electrons from a mole of gaseous atoms to form a
mole of gaseous ions.
• This change is endothermic because work is needed
to remove the electron.

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Ionization energy

• Factors affecting the

magnitude of the ionization
energy:
– the charge on the nucleus.
– Shielding of electrons in Filled
inner orbitals.
– repulsion that the electron
experiences from other electrons
within the same shell.

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Ionization energy

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Ionization energy

• Going down a group of the periodic table, the

ionisation energy of the elements decreases.
• This is because of a reduction in the amount of
electron-electron repulsion and hence the greater
nuclear-electron attraction that results causes the
remaining electrons to move closer to the nucleus.

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Ionization Energy

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Ionization energy

• going across a period (for example period 2 from Li

to Ne, or period 3 from Na to Ar), it can be seen
that the ionisation energy increases.
• This is because of the increase in the charge on the
nucleus which, as the electrons being removed are
all in the same energy level, increases the effective
nuclear charge, and hence the ionisation energy.

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Ionization energy

• The more electrons that have been removed from

an atom, the greater the energy required to remove
the next electron.

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Electron configuration

The maximum number of electrons in a main energy

level n is 2n2:
1st energy level, n = 1; maximum 2 e-;
2nd energy level n = 2, maximum 8 e-;
• 3rd energy level n = 3, maximum 18 e-.

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Electron configuration

• The electron arrangement (or configuration)

indicates the number of electrons and their energy
distribution. This determines an element’s physical
and chemical properties.

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Electron configuration

• Main energy levels, sub-levels and orbitals:

• The main energy levels, n are assigned whole

number integers, n = 1, 2, 3, 4… .
n = 1 represents the lowest energy level.
• Each main energy level contains n sub-levels and
a total of n2 orbitals.
• s, p, d, f etc. is the common notation for sub-levels
and orbitals within sub-levels.

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Electron configuration

• An orbital is an area of space around the nucleus

in which an electron moves.
• Orbitals have characteristic shapes. There is one s
orbital which is spherical in shape, three p orbitals
which are dumbbell shaped, called px, py pz, and
arranged in the x, y, and z directions respectively,
five d orbitals and seven f orbitals (both with
complex shapes). The relative energies of s, p, d,
and f orbitals with in a sub-level are: s < p < d < f.

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Electron configuration

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Electron configuration

• Each orbital can have a maximum of 2 electrons.

– n = 1 has one sub-level which is called an s sub-level and which
contains one s orbital.
– n = 2 has two sub-levels: 2s and 2p;
– n = 3 has 3 sub-levels: 3s, 3p and 3d;
– n = 4 has 4 sub-levels:4s, 4p, 4d and 4f, etc.

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Electron configuration

• Each energy sub-level is

divided into orbitals each of
which can contain up to two
electrons, which must have
opposite spins.
• The Pauli exclusion
principle, says that no two
electrons in an atom can be
in exactly the same state
(that is, they cannot be in
the same place at the same
time).

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Electron configuration

• The electrons in atoms

always adopt the lowest
energy configuration
possible by filling one
sub-level completely
before starting to fill
the sub-level of next
highest energy. This is
known as the ‘Aufbau’
(building up) principle.

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Electron configuration

• Hund’s rule, states that

sub-level orbitals are
singly occupied as far
as possible by electrons
with the same spin.

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Electron configuration

• The orbitals are filled with electrons according to

the following order.

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Electron configuration

o Which one of
the following
represents the
2p orbital of
Carbon

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Electron configuration

• The arrangement of electrons in the p-

orbital of some atoms is

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Electron configuration

• The electronic structures of the elements

are related to the position of the element in
the periodic table.

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