ENTO2616

INSECT MORPHOLOGY

LECTURE 5

INSECT INTEGUMENT AND CUTICLE

MOULTING
INSECT BODY WALL (Figs 1a, 2b, p 1)
The insect body wall (integument) forms
the outermost covering of the insect,
and is comprised of three main
regions:

• Cuticle (cuticula), which is divided

into an epi-, exo- and endocuticle
(arranged from outside to inside)
(acellular layer),

• Epidermis, a layer of epidermal cells

(cellular layer),

• The basal membrane (acellular

layer).
 INSECT BODY WALL
The insect cuticle is a waxy layer
that covers the outside of the
body. It fulfils two main
functions:

• Prevents desiccation by
restricting water loss,

• It serves as a waterproof layer

that protects the epidermis from
damage.
 INSECT CUTICLE
The cuticle of insects is a chemically complex layer, which varies in structure
from one insect species to another.

The structure may also vary between the different body parts of the insect
(e.g. legs and abdomen).

The cuticle is composed primarily of chains of a polysaccharide, chitin,

embedded in a protein matrix.

Chitin is a carbohydrate primarily made up of monomers of the sugar N-

acetylglucosamine.

Individual chitin chains are intertwined to form microfibrils. Microfibrils are

often laid down in parallel in a layer called a lamina.

Chitin is a very resistant substance, but does not make the cuticle hard. This
is achieved by the protein matrix in which the microfibrils are laid down
during moulting. The most important of these proteins is sclerotin.
 PROCUTICLE (Figs 1a, 2a, p 1)
The exocuticle is sclerotised
cuticle that forms after moulting.
The new cuticle that is initially
secreted by the epidermis is
called procuticle, and is soft,
pale in colour, and slightly
expandable.
 PROCUTICLE (Figs 1a, 2a, p 1)
The formation of sclerites (body plates) in
this cuticle involves the process of
hardening and darkening, known as
sclerotisation.

Sclerotisation takes place by the

formation of cross-bonds between
protein chains in the outer portions of
the procuticle.

This results in hardening of certain

portions of the procuticle.
 EXOCUTICLE (Figs 1a, 2a, p 1)
Such sclerotised cuticle is called the exocuticle.
Under this layer, the unsclerotised procuticle is
called the endocuticle, and to the outside, the
epicuticle.

At articulations in the body wall (joints, folds) there

is an absence of an exocuticle layer.

Above and below the fold one finds reformation

zones of exocuticle.

In these articulations the epicuticle, endocuticle,

epidermis and basal membrane continue
normally.

The absence of exocuticle allows a large degree of

flexibility in these articulations, which is
necessary for movement of the
appendages.
 EPICUTICLE (Fig. 1b, p 1)
The epicuticle usually comprises four layers (from outside to inside):
• A cement layer,
• A wax layer,
• A cuticulin layer, also called an outer epicuticle,
• A polyphenol layer (fatty substance), also called an inner epicuticle.

CORRECT THIS IN YOUR NOTES!!!

 EPICUTICLE (Fig. 1b, p 1)
Pore canals extend through the endo- and exocuticle and secrete
substances in the epicuticle. These substances are secreted by
epidermal cells.
The epicuticle is not hardened during moulting.
The wax layer serves as the primary mechanism of restricting water
loss in terrestrial insects, as the exo- and endocuticle are water
permeable.
 EPICUTICLE AND WATER LOSS
Small animals have a greater surface area to volume ratio than larger
animals. So water could be lost at a much greater rate in smaller than
larger insects as a result of increasing evaporation from the surface.

The prevention of water loss is therefore more important to smaller insects,

especially those living in arid regions or which are very small in size.

Consequently, the value of the cuticle to an insect depends on its size and
the environment in which it is found.

The relative humidity of a particular habitat (e.g. forest vs desert) will strongly
influence the rate of and tendency towards water loss and ability to
recover water.

Some forest invertebrates do not even have a cuticle as it is not necessary,

as the RH of the habitat is high and water is not readily lost (e.g. snails
and isopods).
ARID REGIONS
 FORESTS

Archaeognatha Blattodea

Onychophora Mollusca
 ENDOCUTICLE
The endocuticle is situated beneath the exocuticle, and
represents the innermost cuticular layer.
It is a non-sclerotised layer, and is flexible.
The endocuticle forms the “membranes” that connect sclerites.
Before moulting takes place, enzymes in the moulting fluid
degrade the old endocuticle, which is reabsorbed into the
body before moulting.
These products are then used in
the production of the new
endocuticle.
 EPIDERMIS
The epidermis is responsible for the secretion of the cuticle
during moulting.
The epidermis forms the outermost cellular layer of an insect.
Setae on the body surface are modified epidermal cells.
Spines and other projections are multicellular extensions of the
epidermis, or merely extensions of the cuticle (p4).
The epidermal cells are often
also responsible for insect
colour and for secreting
substances to the outside of the
cuticle for protection.
Hemiptera: Pentatomidae Hemiptera: Coccidae

Hemiptera: Pentatomidae Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae

 BASAL MEMBRANE
The basal membrane is a thin membrane found beneath the
epidermal layer.
It supports the epidermal layer and plays a role in muscular
attachment.
 MOULTING
Moulting, also called ecdysis, is the
process by which insects grow.
Literally, it is the shedding of their
skin.

The insect grows too large for its

exoskeleton, and sheds it so that the
body can enlarge.

The insect ingests air or increases its

uptake of air through the spiracles,
increasing the internal body pressure
(e.g. cockroaches).

The outer body wall splits along lines

called moulting sutures, and the insect
climbs out.
 MOULTING
These sutures can also be called
breakage lines, as this is where the
exoskeleton breaks.

The new body wall is soft, but soon

hardens.

Moulting sutures are lines along the

outer body wall of the insect that
rupture during moulting to allow the
insect to escape its old exoskeleton
and expand and grow into its new
exoskeleton.
PROCESSES PRECEDING MOULTING
The exocuticle along these moulting
sutures is a lot thinner than in the
rest of the cuticle (Fig. 3a).

Prior to moulting, cutaneous glands in

the epidermal layer secrete
moulting fluid into the space
between the old endocuticle and
the newly forming cuticle.

This fluid facilitates the loosening of

the old cuticle from the body during
moulting.
PROCESSES PRECEDING MOULTING
Epidermal cells secrete the new
cuticle.

Additional moulting fluid is secreted

between the old endocuticle and
exocuticle (Fig. 3b).

The new cuticle forming begins to

differentiate into the 3 cuticular
layers.

At this time the old endocuticle is

broken down (digested) by
enzymes in the moulting fluid, and
is absorbed into the moulting fluid.
 MOULTING
There is an increase in the blood
pressure in the hemocoel, which
causes the body to expand.

This pressure causes the moulting

sutures to tear, allowing the insect to
prepare to escape from its old
exoskeleton.

At this point the moulting fluid plays an

important role, loosening the old epi-
and exocuticle from the body (Fig.
3c).
 MOULTING
The new cuticle is nearly ready, and the
three layers are already well formed.
The new moulting suture is already
formed in a similar position to the old
suture (Fig. 3c).

The insect wriggles its body to aid

removal of the old exoskeleton. It
emerges from the old exoskeleton
once it is loose enough. At this point
the insect is at its most vulnerable,
as its protective cuticle is still soft
and fragile.
Ecdysis + 0 min
Ecdysis + 1 min
Ecdysis + 3 min
Ecdysis + 8 min
Ecdysis + 10 min
Ecdysis + 18 min
 MOULTING
Mayflies of the order Ephemeroptera are the only
winged insects that moult as adults.
The nymphs exit the water body and moult into a
subimago stage, which has wings.
They then have a brief flight to vegetation, after
which they moult again into an imago stage,
which is the adult form that mates.
All other insects only moult as immature stages.
The adults are formed following a moult from a
nymph in the case of Exopterygota insects, and
adults are formed from a pupa in the case of
Endopterygota insects.
 SCLEROTISATION
Prior to sclerotisation, the soft new cuticle
is usually pale cream to yellow-brown in
colour.
The cuticle will only start hardening once
the proteins in the exocuticle (sclerotin
and others) have started to bond to
each other.
With the hardening of the exocuticle the
insect darkens in colour, and eventually
attains the colour typical of the species
through the process of pigmentation.
Some insects undergo pigmentation
before the moulting process has been
completed (premoulting pigmentation).